Secret of Prosperity

– Ananda Kafle

Department of Natural Sciences (Chemistry)

The later decades of the 20th century are marked as the period of a rapid growth of technologies. Beside information and communication technologies, significant developments have been achieved in a multitude of areas including agriculture, power generation, alternative energies, industrial productivity, etc. For developed countries, scientific innovations and researches have for long, remained an inevitable tool for strengthening national economy. The foundations of the 21st century identity of India and China as rapidly growing world economies were laid with the governments’ acceptance of the importance of science and technology in development.

Realization of the value of science and technology by the Chinese regime following frequent blows from Europeans in the 19th century enabled the sector to regain its pace, that was lost four centuries before, when the monarchy withdrew its interest on the subject assuming it to be trivial. Until the 14th century, when the country had its well flourished scientific innovations, China used to make remarkable contribution in the Asian economy. Especially, the four Chinese inventions – papermaking, gun powder, printing and compass (known as the Four Great Inventions) are appreciated for the prominent role they played in the then China. With the efforts of modern Chinese reformists, the science and technology sector of China has been flourishing as an independent discipline.

The field of scientific research and development is increasingly gaining higher priorities in China. The average increase in the Gross Domestic Expenditure in Research and Development (GERD) since 2000 is by 22.8%. The highest fraction of the allotted budget now is being spent in experimental developments and attempts are being made to raise the investments in applied researches. Higher expenditures in researches and an enthusiastic involvement of the business enterprises in the sector are playing important role in increasing the GDP. The multilateral efforts have made China able to rely on its own technological innovations to some extent. The ongoing developments in indigenous technologies are manifested in the fields like agriculture, manufacture of electronics, production of synthetic goods etc. All things together, are establishing China as a leading economy.

The well flourished economy of the ancient Indian subcontinent was contributed by their innovations in the then relevant areas like shipping, mining, baking earthen artifacts etc. The prosperous Vedic community was enriched with discoveries on medication, astrology and mathematics. The technologies blooming here earlier had greatly increased the power of this community among human civilizations. Inability of the scientific community to keep the spirit of the novelty and discoveries eventually kicked the territory back from the technology scenario.

In the colonial period, the British emperors had brought along with them the power of science and intellect, which in combination with the tactful political strategies, they used to dominate and rule the Indian society. After independence India’s economic growth is greatly contributed by innovations in technologies, especially in automobile engineering, nuclear science and information technology.

Some powerful political leaders in Nepal take the abutting Indian states as development models for our own country.  The economic growth in different Indian states including those lagged behind in mainstream development are a consequence of the increasing investments that the government has been making in the field of scientific research and technology development, coupled with improved  governance. Even in the time of harsh economy it has been making a 1/5th increment in science budget every year. Indian agriculture is not limited in development of dams, irrigation facilities and proper supply of the farm essentials, rather, is getting increasingly assisted by most modern technologies. Besides, the industrial sector including automobiles, textiles, pharmaceuticals, software etc are vigorously growing. The nations that are in the race of becoming the prospective world powers have been using science and technology as the most efficient tool to accomplish their purposes.

While the two large neighbors are making a big hop in development and use of technologies, the situation of our own is the most disappointing. We are not simply lagging behind with regards to the scientific innovations, rather, have not even started walking. Our agriculture sector, which is claimed to make the highest contribution to the GDP, has still remained within debates of how to augment the farm yield from traditional methods. Instead of being grown through the application of modern technologies, many of the industries are getting closed. The possibilities of using native technologies in agriculture or industries are still like a far cry.

The scientific research sector has always remained staggered by the government’s indifference, corruption and uncertainty. The organizations like Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST), Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) etc. and the universities in the country, which are supposed to be the centers of research activities have almost become non- functional. Instead of carrying out their actual job, the officials are busy pleasing the political power centers for their own development. This sector has been polluted by the political and bureaucratic influences. Instead of the scientists, the bureaucrats are making themselves the real leaders. General complaints are that the largest fraction of the scanty amount of budget that is allocated for scientific researches is either embezzled or is spent for purposes like international visits of the officials. Most of the scientists, who are working on the grants from foreign agencies, spend their skills on planning how to manipulate expenditures so that a large amount of the grants goes to their own pockets.

If we are to move ahead in the race of development and increasing national prestige, all the rubbishes associated with the scientific communities must be removed and technological innovations promoted or else, we can’t be upgraded from the status of the mere consumers of foreign products and gadgets.

(The numerical data presented are based on the official information from the concerned governments and authorities.)

(Earlier published in Republica, 7 August 2013)

Dealing with the Thinking

– Hem Raj Kafle

In teaching spontaneity has a greater power than planned outpourings though planning is fundamental to traditional theories of teaching. Spontaneity brings out original thoughts. It corresponds with the need of the circumstances, and creates the most suitable statements to the mood of the audience. No doubt, planning is useful. But it depends. Is what we deliver a set of PowerPoint slides prepared ages ago, and printed, photocopied and handed to the dear pupils in each session for their exam-time convenience? Or is it a formal lesson plan designed for a specific class situation, which the teacher updates every session, and which helps augment students’ learning through self-study, reflection, internalization and reconstruction?

I usually do not work with readymade handouts; I only reflect on and take notes of what I might say in the class, to compel myself to deliver the best from the internalized knowledge. My initial classes are filled with guidelines, not necessarily in the form of setting rules for students. I say that certain rules, like giving regular classes, making students regular and conducting tests are my works, but my being a leader automatically draws students towards them. I say I would not repeatedly remind them of the rules because I consider the students mature enough to understand the right ways; they should know that by making them work I am adding to my own stock of responsibilities.

I think the best thing I tell them is that a human being is a thinking and feeling creature and therefore has to save herself from being a machine. Life is less formula than feelings though formulas help shape a section of our professional future. Our lives are also guided largely by the works of others, or say, the thoughts of others. This sets for us the requirement to be associated with people who think and create ideas. Teachers seek this association in other teachers, and also with students. Students have teachers and their class fellows to fulfill this need.

I do not forget to explain the rationale of prescribing the contents of the courses. Every theme has a purpose, way beyond a compulsion to study and take exams. My first lecture explains why we teach a story in place of the other, how one text relates with the other and with the lives of the readers as well. Moreover, I make it a point to show what one gets to learn from certain writers and texts. I work in full adherence to V.S. Ramachandran’s warnings: “Did you enjoy doing what you did?” and “Did it really make an impact?” To me joy  is what I feel from being able to make students realize the value of learning. And the impact need not always be outward, directed to changing our surroundings. It is equally important to experience some kind of transformation in ourselves. Any academic, creative task we do in a university should have the quality of giving direction to at least a few people including ourselves.

My classes teach me to teach better.  I  like to treat every new student as a mysterious stock of knowledge, sentiments and challenges. If you take her as a mere creature, you will not see her beyond a semester. If you take her as a thinking and feeling being, stop for a while to meditate on the potentials she bears. This is why I love to share the fancy of being old and mature and useful so that the students might fancy identifying with this vision of being old and mature and useful. This is called making people think beyond rules and formulas. My contribution in this sense lies in instilling, and sometimes reviving, this humane sense out of the monotony and rush for driving towards dreams and fulfillments.

This is why the readymade slides and handouts work  only little with me. I do not either regret for not having any of them because I do not identify my success as a teacher with the sight of students breathlessly cramming slides and handouts few minutes before the examination bell. My satisfaction rather lies in those contented faces, which head smugly in and out of classrooms and exam halls  on all seasons. I have all reasons to be happy for this notoriety of discouraging mechanical learning.

 

 

यसरी बढिरहेछ धनी र गरीबबिचको खाडल

– उद्धव प्याकुरेल

नेपालगंजबाट सुर्खेतको १०२ किलोमिटरको दूरीमा यदि माइक्रो बसबाट यात्रा गर्ने हो भने २२५ रुपैया भाडा लाग्छ । यस्तै एक यात्राका क्रममा करिव १७ जना यात्रीहरुमध्ये ९ जनाले प्रतिव्यक्ति रु. १६० का दरमा टिकट कटाएका रहेछन् । तीनजनाले विधार्थी सहुलियत भनेर रु. १५० रुपैयामात्र तिरेका र बाँकी ५ जनाले मात्र पूरा भाडा अर्थात रु. २२५ नै भाडा तिरेका थिए । ती यात्रीहरूको सामाजिक आर्थिक स्थितीलाई केलाउँदा पहिलो नौं जना जागिदारहरु, तीन विधार्थिहरुमध्ये सवै नै एम.ए.मा अध्ययनरत र बाँकी पाँचजना गरीब ”गाँउलेहरु“ थिए ।

संयोग भनौ म त्यतिबेला समिर दासगुप्ता र रे किलीको “ग्लोवलाइजेशन एण्ड आफ्टर” भन्ने किताब पढ्दै थिएँ । विश्व वैंकका एकजना विख्यात् अर्थशास्त्रिको हवाला दिएर दासगुप्ता र किलीले आफ्नो किताबको परिचयमा लेख्छन्, विश्वका एक प्रतिशत धनीहरुले ५७ प्रतिशत गरीबको बराबर आम्दानि गर्दछन् । संयुक्त राष्ट संघीय विकास कार्यक्रम, युएनडिपिको मानव विकास प्रतिवेदन २००३ ले अफ्रिका र युरोपको प्रतिव्यक्ति आम्दानिलाई तुलना गरी लेख्छ, सन् १९२० मा युरोपको प्रतिव्यक्ति आम्दानि अफ्रिकाको भन्दा ३ गुणामात्र वढि थियो । तर १९९० मा आइपुग्दा त्यो दुरी वढेर १३ गुणामा पुग्यो । यससँगै दासगुप्ता र किलीले यो पनि खुलासा गरेका छन् कि एकातिर विश्वका ५ प्रतिशत गरिवहरु वर्षिक २५ प्रतिशतले आफ्नो आम्दानि गुमाएर अझ गरीव बन्दैछन् भने २० प्रतिशत धनीहरुको वार्षिक १२ प्रतिशतले आम्दानि बढिरहेको छ । उनीहरुले विश्वमा असमानता बढेको त स्वीकारेका छन् र त्यसको कारण नै देशहरको बिचको बढ्दो असमानतालाई मानेका छन् । मलाई बसयात्राको त्यो दृश्यले आत्मग्लानिमात्र भएन पढ्दै गरेको किताबका तथ्यांकहरुपनि याद आए । किताबको निष्कर्षलाई मैले व्यक्तिसंग तुलना गर्ने जमर्को गरेँ ।  यस तथ्यांक र यात्राको घटनाले तत्पश्चातका करिव ४५ दिनको मेरो सुर्खेत र सल्यानका गाँउगाँउको यात्रामा हरेकदिन मेरा मनमा एउटा खुल्दुलीले स्थान पाइरह्यो कि आखिरमा समाजमा धनी कसरी अरु धनी र गरीव झन् गरीव भैरहेछ । त्यसक्रममा संकलित ग्रामिण परिवेशका केही चर्चा गर्नलायक झलकहरु यहाँ छन् जसले गाँउका गरीव कसरी अझै गरीव भैरहेका छन् ?

हामी सबैले अनुभव गरकै कुरा हो कि यातायात भाडा, टेलिफोन महसुल, इन्टरनेट महसुल सबैको दर शहरको तुलनामा गाँउघरमा बढी छ । अर्थशास्त्रको नियमको हवालादिदै भन्ने गरिन्छ कि उपभोक्ता धेरै भएका स्थानमा सामान या सेवाको मूल्य सस्तो हुन्छ । तर त्यो नियम गाँउमा लागु भएको छैन । आज शहरमा व्यक्ति व्यक्तिको हातमा मोवाइल छ, त्यसैले टेलिफोन बूथहरुले काम पाएका छैनन्, तैपनि प्रतिकल २, ३ रुपैयामा कल गर्न पाइन्छ । तर गाँउमा टेलिफोन बूथहरुमा अझै लाइन लागेर पालो कुर्नु पर्दछ । टेलिफोनवाला २४ सै घण्टा सेवाप्रदानमा नै व्यस्त हुन्छन् । तर टेलिफोन शुल्क भने शहरको तुलनामा कमसेकम ३ गुना महंगो छ । इन्टरनेटको कुरा गर्ने हो भने आज १० रुपैया प्रतिघण्टाको सेवा नपाइने शहर विरलै होलान् तर गाँउमा त्यसैकालागि रु. ६० सम्म तिनुपर्छ । यो भइरहेको व्यवसायीले दर थाहा नपाएर पनि होइन, शहरमा भन्दा थप लगानी भएर पनि हैन । तर यो निरन्तर भैरहेकोछ, जसले गरीबलाई झन् गरीब बनाउन सहयोग गरिरहेको छ ।

सामान्यतया वर्तमान सामाजिक संरचनामा दुइटा हिस्साका महत्वपूर्ण भुमिका देखिन्छन्, जसमध्ये एकले यी सवै उपलव्ध श्रोत र साधनको दुरुपयोग या गलत प्रयोग गरको छ र अर्को ती नयाँ सुविधाहरुवाट पिडित भएको छ । पहिलो वर्ग त्यो युवाहरूको हो जुन वर्ग घरपविारको पुरानो पेशामा रम्दैन, ऊ उसका बाबुबाजेले गर्दैआएको कृषि, पशुपालन जस्तो गाँउमा सामान्य जीवन धान्न पुग्ने पेशामा मन दिँदैन । त्यस वर्गका युवाहरुमध्ये प्राय सामान्य पढेलेखेका छन्, जसलाई यस्तो पेशा सानो र निच पनि लाग्छ । त्यसो त समाजले पनि कृषि, पशुपालन जस्तो पुस्र्तौँदेखि गर्दैआएका यी पेशालाई यसरी नै लिएको पाइन्छ र भनिन्छ कि “पढे-लेखेर पनि त्यै काम गर्नेभए किन पढ्ने?” त्यो क्रम अलिक अघिसम्म परिवारका युवामध्ये छोराहरुमा मात्र लागुहुन्थ्यो तर आज क्रमश छोरीहरुमा पनि फैलिँदै गएको छ । जसको प्रभावले आज गाँउमा टेष्ट परीक्षा पास देखि बी.ए. सम्म पुगेका युवाको जमात पूर्ण वेरोजगार छन्, उनीहरु कृषिमा काम गर्दैनन्, घरघन्दामा सघाउँदैनन् र खोजेको जस्तो रोजगारी पनि नमिलेका कारण वेकाम छन् । त्यस स्थितिमा उनीहरु केवुल च्यानलवाट प्रसारित कार्यक्रम हेरेर मनोरञ्जन लिने, नजिकै साइवर भए त्यहाँ गएर च्याट गर्ने, हलमा फिल्म हेर्ने, मोवाइलमार्फत् एस.एम.एस. अनि च्याटमा व्यस्त रहने आदि कार्यमा समय बिताइरहेका देखिन्छन् । उनीहरुमध्ये अधिकांश पुरुषहरुका लागि वैदेशिक रोजगारी र महिलाका लागि राम्रो घरकेटाको खोजिमा समय पर्खनु नै दिनचर्या भएको छ ।

गाँउघरमा अर्को परिवर्तन खानपिनको बानि व्यहोरामा देखिएको छ, जसले प्रत्यक्षरुपमा गरीबि वढाउन सहयोग गरेको छ । हिजोको अधिकांश नेपालीको खाने परिकार आफ्नै खेतवारीको उत्पादन नै गाँउघरको खाना हुन्थ्यो । कतिपय परिवारले धान, गहुँजस्ता सहजै विक्रियोग्य र तुलनात्मक रुपमा मूल्य पनि राम्रै पाइने अन्न-बालीहरु बेचेर नुन-तेल लगायतका लागि आवश्यक खर्च टार्ने र मकै, कोदो, फापर अनि त्यसबाट बनेका परिकार ढिँडो, रोटी, च्याँख्ला इत्यादिमा रमाउने गर्थे । तर आज मकै, कोदोजस्ता कम बजारभाउ पाइने अन्नवालीहरु बेच्ने र महंगो मूल्य पर्ने चामल किनेरै भए पनि भातै खान थालेका छन् । त्यतिमात्र होइन, तरकारीमा करेसाबारीमा उव्जने साग, गुन्द्रुक, इत्यादिको बदला बजारवाट महंगो मूल्यका काउली लगायतका परिकार खोज्ने गरिन्छ । खाजाका कुरागर्दा हिजो भुटेको गहुँ र मकैमा रमाउनेहरुमाझ आज बजारमा देखिने चाउचाउ, समोसा, पकौडा, चाउमिन इत्यादिले जरा गाडेको छ । प्राय केटाकेटी विधालय जान्छन्, उनीहरुलाई दिनको खाजा अर्थात् टिफिन चाहिन्छ र त्यहाँ पनि हिजोको जस्तो खाजाको परिकारले नभएर चाउचाउ, समोसा, पकौडा, चाउमिनमध्ये एक चिज अनिवार्य भएको छ ।

माथि चर्चा गरिएको परिवर्तित सन्दर्भमा सबैका लागि चाहिने एउटै कुरा भनेको पैसा हो । उनीहरूले यी सबैका लागि कसरी खर्च गरिरहेका छन् ? के गाँउवासीको आम्दानि श्रोत पनि हिजोको तुलनामा बढेको छ त ? हो, हातमा नगद भएका केही व्यक्तिहरुले परिवर्तित परिस्थितीलाई अनुकुल बनाउन ससाना होटल, टेलिफोन बूथ, खुद्रा दोकान, साइवर इत्यादिमा लगानी गरेर पहिलाको भन्दा राम्रो जीवन जिउन लागेका छन् । यसबाहेक जसले अन्नबाली उत्पादन गर्ने पुरानो नीतिलाई छाडेर तरकारी तथा अन्य नगदेबाली उत्पादनमा आफूलाई लगाए, ती कृषकहरुले पनि हिजोभन्दा राम्रै आम्दानि गरेका छन् । तर त्यो संख्या निकै न्यून किन छ भने कहिले तरकारीमा लाग्ने नयाँ नयाँ रोगका कारण त कहिले बजारभाउका कारण उनीहरुको आम्दानि त्यति उत्साहजनक छैन । कृषिमा आधरित यसप्रकारको पेशालाई घरमा रहेका युवाहरुले त्यति सहयोग नगर्ने गरेका कारण कमैलेमात्र यसलाई आगालेको पाइन्छ । बरु खाने परिकारमा भएको परिवर्तनले गर्दा राम्रो रकम पाइने अन्नबालीको बिक्री परिणाम कम हुन पुगेको छ, जसको प्रत्यक्ष असर कृषकको आम्दानिमा परेको छ । यस अवस्थामा माथि देखिएको खर्च धान्न कैर्यौ परिवारले आफ्नो जग्गा जमिन बेच्न या बैँक या स्थानीय पैसावालकोमा जग्गा वन्धकीमा राखेर काम चलाउन वाध्य देखिन्छन् ।

गाँउमा अचेल खासगरी केही जग्गा भएका र खानपुग्ने भनाउँदाहरुहरुमा छोराछोरीलाई पढाउने कुरामा एक प्रकारको प्रतिस्पर्धा नै चलेको छ । कम्प्युटर शिक्षाको पनि लहर चलेको छ, गाँउमा । कम्प्युटरको तालिमपश्चात् राम्रो जागिर पाइने सिप भनेर अभिभावकले बुझेका छन् । नगद नभए पनि “भएको जग्गाजमिनले भ्याएसम्म पढाइदिने” भन्ने भनाइहरु अभिभावकहरुबाट प्रसस्तै सुन्न पाइन्छ । यसरी जोखिम मोलेर पढाएकाहरु सबै त सफल हुँदैनन्, जो पढाइसंगै राम्रो नोकरीमा पनि सफल हुन्छ, उसको राम्रो भएको छ, र ऊ चाँडै नै नवधनाढ्यको कोटिमा प्रवेश पनि गरेको छ । तर जसले पढाइमा या नोकरी दुईमध्ये एकमा असफलता हात पार्छ, उसको अगाडि बन्दकिमा दिएको जग्गा अब बैँक या साहुको नाममा नामसारी गरिदिने बाहेक विकल्प रहँदैन । परिणाम, परिवार अब जमिन नहुने या गरीब सुकुम्वासीको श्रेणिमा झरेकोछ ।

यसरी आधुनिकतासंगै गाँउको एउटा हिस्सा आर्थिक रुपमा दिन दुगुना र रात चौगुना अगाडि बढेको पाइन्छ भने अर्को हिस्सा त्यहीँ नै आफ्नो घरखेत गुमाएर अझ गरीब बनेको पाइन्छ । यो पछिल्लो हिस्सा सानो देखिए पनि समाजमा हिजोदेखि नै रहेका गरीब र सुकुम्वासीको हिस्सामा मिल्न जाँदा बिस्तारै ठूलो बनिरहेकोछ । अर्को भुल्न नहुने कुरा यो छ कि, आजको आधुनिकतामा यो गरीबको हिस्सा चैँ दुई कारणले माथि जानै नसक्ने हुदोरहेछ। एक त उनीहरुको पेशामा आउने संकट र अर्को उपभोक्तवादको असर । आधुनिक विकाससँगै जग्गाहिन गरीब गर्ने काम जस्तै भारी बोक्ने, खेतबारीमा खन्ने, जोत्ने कामहरुलाई गाडि तथा आधुनिक मेसिनहरुले प्रतिस्थापन गरिदिएका छन् । अर्को, वल्लतल्ल काम पाएपनि उनिहरु ति कामबाट कमाएको पैसा पनि अचल सम्पत्ति खरिद या वचतमा भन्दा आधुनिकताले सँगै ल्याएका वस्तु तथा सेवाहरु जस्तै टेलिभिजन, मोवाइल, रेफ्रिजेरेटर खरिद गर्न, केवुल टेलिभिजनको बिल, टेलिफोन महसुल इत्यादिमा खर्च गरेर नै उडाइदिन्छन् । माथि नै भनिए अनुसार बदलिएको खाना, बसाइ तथा अन्य खर्चको बानिका कारण उनीहरुमध्ये कमै मध्यम वर्गमा आउछन्, धेरै चैँ गरीबको गरीब नै रहन्छन् ।

यस अवस्थामा सरकारले जे गरे पनि त्यो वर्गलाई छुनै सक्दोरहेनछ । हामीले नै अवलम्वन गरेको नीतिलाई नै हेर्ने हो भने पनि यो देख्न सकिन्छ । विधार्थीलाई भाडामा सहुलियत छ, तर अति गरीबको बच्चा विधालय नै जाँदैनन्, मट्टितेलमा अनुदान छ, तर उनीहरु दाउरा बाल्छन् । रासायिनिक मल, विउविजन इत्यादिमा सहुलियत छ, उनीहरुको खेती गर्ने जग्गा नै छैन ।  समाजमा जागिरे तथा हेर्दा आधुनिक जस्तो देखिनेहरू हाउभाउ देखाएर सहुलियत लिन्छन् । तर ती गरीब किसानहरु कतैको सहुलियत पाउँदैनन् बरु माथि वर्णन गरेको भाडामा झै अरुले लिएको सहुलियतको क्षतिपूर्ति पनि तिनै गाँउले गरीबहरुबाट उठाउने गरेको पाइन्छ । गरीबलाई अरु गरीबितर्फ धकेल्ने माध्यम आधुनिकताले आफूसँगै ल्याएको छ, जसबाट यो समूहलाई बचाउन सामान्य प्रयासले सम्भव छैन ।

[साभार: नेपाल साप्ताहिक, अंङ्क: २९९]

छ लेनको सडक: बोकाको मुखमा कुभिन्डो

– मुकुन्दप्रसाद उपाध्याय

हाम्रो भाषा–साहित्यलाई निश्चित उचाइ प्रदान गर्ने एउटा कडी उखान–टुक्का पनि हो । हाम्रो शब्दभण्डारमा उखान–टुक्काहरू पर्याप्त मात्रामा छताछुल्ल भएर बसेका छन् । ती अथाह उखान–टुक्काको सागरभित्रको एउटा गागर हो ‘बोकाको मुखमा कुभिन्डो’ । हाम्रो जीवनको हरेक क्षेत्रमा यो उखान निकै सान्दर्भिक मानिन्छ । यस उखानको तात्पर्य हो कसैलाई हैसियतभन्दा बढी प्राप्त हुनु र त्यसलाई सम्हाल्न नसक्नु ।

हाम्रो देशका लागि देशको पहिलो छ लेनको चिल्लो सडक पनि झन्डै–झन्डै ‘बोकाको मुखमा कुभिन्डो’ प्रतीत हुँदो छ । विश्वमानचित्रमा हामीसँगै स्वतन्त्र भएका राष्ट्रहरूले दस–बाह्र लेनका चिल्ला सडक र फ्लाइओभरहरू बनाउन थालेको यो एक्काइसौँ शताब्दीमा बल्लतल्ल जापान सरकारले निगाह गरेकाले हामीले कोटेश्वरदेखि सूर्यविनायकसम्मको १२ किलोमिटरसम्म छ लेन (चार जोड दुई) को सडकमा गुड्ने सौभाग्य पाएका छौँ । राणाकालीन जुद्धशमशेरको पालामा बनेको सडकलाई आजपर्यन्त ‘नयाँ सडक’ भनिरहने हामी नेपालीका लागि यो छ लेनको सडक ठूलो उपलब्धि नै थियो । आधा घन्टाको बाटोलाई १२ मिनेटमा छिचोल्न सकिन्थ्यो । तर हाम्रो सोच, शैली र सरकारी बकम्फुसे नियमका कारण त्यो सडक ‘बोकाको मुखमा कुभिन्डो’ हुँदैछ । एकातिर हाम्रा सवारी–चालकहरू लेन–ड्राइभिङमा अभ्यस्त भइसकेका छैनन्, जतातिरबाट पनि ओभरटेक गर्ने गर्छन् । अति धीमा गतिमा चल्ने सवारी–साधनले कुन लेन लिने र तेज रफ्तारमा चल्ने सवारी–साधनले कुन लेन लिने, थाहा छैन । लेनमा हुनुपर्ने रफ्तार र पछिबाट पछ्याउने सवारी–साधनको वास्तै नगरी पेसेन्जर उठाउने लोकलबसहरू, नियम नलाग्ने च्याउसरहका मोटरसाइकलहरू र हाइवेमा चलाउन नपाइने साइडलाइट र ब्रेकलाइट नभएका ट्रेलरयुक्त ट्रेक्टर र पावरट्रेृलरहरू छ लेनको सडकमा निर्बाध चलाउने बानीलाई सुधार गर्नुपर्ने खाँचो र समस्याबीच सरकारले नै नयाँ समस्या खडा गरिदिएको छ । त्यो हो त्यति राम्रो सडकमा ६० किलोमिटर प्रतिघन्टाभन्दा बढी रफ्तारमा सवारी साधन चलाउन नपाइने, चलाएमा लाइसेन्स प्वाल पार्न बग्गीखाना जानुपर्ने नयाँ हास्यास्पद ट्राफिक नियम । त्यति राम्रो चिल्लो सडकमा विदेशमा झैँ न्यूनतम गति ६० किलोमिटर प्रतिघन्टा हुनुपर्नेमा त्यसैलाई अधिकतम सीमा बनाइएको छ । यो अनौठो, हास्यास्पद र लज्जास्पद बुद्धि हाम्रा नीतिनिर्माताहरूले कहाँबाट सापटी लिएका होलान् ?

नेपालमा सरकारले यस्तो नियम बनाउने कुरा थाहा पाएको हुँदो हो त  सायदै जापान सरकारले छ लेनको बाटो बनाइदिन्थ्यो होला । चीन सरकारले ठूलो सदासयता देखाएर नेपाल सरकारलाई उपहार दिएको ट्रलीबस, भृकुटी कागज कारखाना, बाँसबारी छाला तथा जुत्ता कारखाना र हरिसिद्धि इँटाटायल कारखानालाई विगतमा हामीले ‘बोकाको मुखमा कुभिन्डो’ बनाइसकेका थियौँ । सायद त्यही नियति भोग्नुपर्ने होला बिचरा छ लेन सडकले ।

हाम्रो ट्राफिक नियम पनि बडो बिचित्रको छ । रिङरोडको भीडमा अनि सूर्यविनायकबाट साँगातिर हुइँकिँदाचाहिँ गतिको सीमा छैन । त्यहाँ प्रतिघन्टा ७०, ८०, ९० किलोमिटरमा पनि गुडाउन पाइने, तर सजिलो बाटोमा चाहिँ ६० किलोमिटरभन्दा कममा हाँक्नुपर्ने रे ! छ लेनको त्यति राम्रो चिल्लो सडकमा पनि ६० किलोमिटरभन्दा बढी गतिमा हाँक्न नपाइने नियम लागू गर्ने हो भने पहिले सरकारले पाँचवटा गियर भएको हलुका सवारी–साधनको आयातमा नै प्रतिबन्ध लगाउनुपर्ने हुन्छ । किनभने त्यस सडकमा कसैले ५ नम्बर गियरमा ६० किलोमिटरभन्दा कम गतिमा सवारी–साधन गुडाएर देखाइदिनुपर्थ्यो । त्यो १० किलोमिटरमा गुड्ने करिब ८०–९० गतिमा हाँकिने हलुका सवारी हजारौँ गाडीहरूले बाध्यतावश कम रफ्तारमा सवारी साधन चलाउँदा निश्चित रूपले इन्धनको खपतमा वृद्धि हुने हुन्छ । यसबाट इन्डियन आयल कर्पोरेसनलाई नै फाइदा हुने हो ! हाम्रो देशले जेजस्तो नियम बनाए पनि अन्ततोगत्वा छिमेकी मित्रराष्ट्रलाई नै फाइदा हुने नियम बनाउनुपर्ने बाध्यता हाम्रो नियत हो वा नियति ? भगवान् जानून् !

छ लेनको नमुना त्यस सडकमा गतिको सीमितताको नियम मोटरसाइकललाई मात्र लगाइएको भए तैबिसेक हुन्थ्यो, तर एकमुस्ट सबै सवारी–साधनका लागि लगाउँदा विचार गर्नुपर्ने थियो । त्यस सडकमा अर्को थप गल्ती हुन लागिरहेको छ । त्यो हो सडकको बीचबीचमा निर्माण भइरहेको पैदलयात्रुका लागि बन्ने फ्लाइओभर हेड ब्रिजको उचाइ । ती पुलहरूको उचाइ पर्याप्त छैन । हामीले हेक्का राख्नुपर्ने कुरा के हो भने छ लेनको सडक सहरभित्रको सडक होइन । रिङरोडभित्रको सडक नभएर त्यो हाइवेको एक खण्ड हो । माथिल्लो तामाकोसी जस्ता ठूलाठूला जलविद्युत आयोजनाहरूको निर्माण हुन बाँकी नै छ । त्यस्ता आयोजनाहरू निर्माण गर्दा वा ठूला उद्योगहरू स्थापना गर्दा ठूलाठूला यन्त्र–उपकरणहरूको ढुवानी गर्नुपर्ने हुन्छ । त्यस्ता हेभी इक्विपमेन्ट ढुवानी गर्नुपर्दा के ती कम उचाइका ओभरहेड ब्रिजहरू भत्काउने ? यो अदूरदर्शी निर्णय गर्नेहरूको घैँटोमा कहिल्यै घाम नलाग्ने नै हो त ?

यो दुर्लभ नूतन सडकमा बनाइएको ट्राफिक लाइट नमिल्नु अर्थात् पहेंलो बत्तीको अवधि ज्यादै कम समयको हुनु आदिलाई त सामान्य त्रुटि नै मान्नुपर्ने हुन्छ । ६० किलोमिटरभन्दा कममा हाँक्नुपर्ने त्यस सडकमा अन्य जीवजन्तुहरू कुकुर, बस्तुभाउ आदिलाई भने कुनै ट्राफिक नियम लाग्दैन । ती जीवजन्तुहरूको सौभाग्य नै भन्नुपर्छ भर्खर–भर्खर आफ्ना गाउँहरूलाई खुला दिसामुक्त क्षेत्र घोषणा गर्नमा गर्व गर्ने हाम्रो देशका ती जीवहरू अझै नियममुक्त प्राणीका रूपमा निर्बाध विचरण गर्न पाएका छन् । कुकुरहरूले पर्दामुक्त क्रीडा आदि गर्न पाएकै छन् । गाउँहरूलाई दिसामुक्त क्षेत्र घोषणा गर्न तल्लीन एनजीओ र सरकारलाई के सुझाव दिन चाहन्छु भने कमसेकम गहनाजस्तो चिल्लो त्यो छ लेनको सडकलाई गोबरमुक्त सडक भनेर घोषणा गर्न सके हुन्थ्यो । नत्र त्यो छ लेनको सडक पनि हाम्रा लागि ‘बोकाको मुखमा कुभिन्डो’ नै हुन के बेर !

When Reetu Returns

– Kashiraj Pandey 
“There is a new face in the village.”
 The headman is informed by one of the village women.
“Yeah, he must be a tourist who might want to stay here for a couple of nights and might leave.” Says Jimuwal, the headman.
“Jimuwaal Baa, Jimuwaal Baa”
Shouts another Youngman from the distance – a clear voice some two kilometers away, very audible, very familiar.
“Oh, Hello? Who is that?” replies the headman.
“This is Ramesh, Jimuwaal Baa. I just wanted to make sure you are home.” As he adds, “I am coming to you with guests, a couple from Amrika.”
“Oh yes, come on by”, says Jimuwaal Baa.
“Namaste Jimuwaal Baa”
Ramesh greets the headman and both the Amrikans also exchange greetings with him.
“I heard about you.” Says Jimuwal Baa.
 There had come a woman that morning who had told him that she had noticed a new person in the village.
“Where have you come from?”—
“England, do you know?” The couple spoke in unison.
“Oh yes, yes, Amrika”, replied the headman.
“Amrikans come and visit our village. Some years ago, many Amrikans would come and stay here almost every day, but for the last couple of years I have not noticed any. Amrikans favor this village very much. You see, tourists can see the mountains from here so clearly. They give money, stationery and sweets to our children. Last year, one Amrikan even brought books, a bagful of books, from London where she came from. She worked in our village primary school for a month. She lived in that shed, down there, above the cow shed. Downstairs we keep cows and upstairs a room to live. We have even constructed a toilet for that Amrikan. She was so shy to go to the toilet in public, or even in an open space. And, she was the one who persuaded us to construct more toilets in our village. Now, each household has at least one toilet in the village. So, we value Amrikans very much.”
“Ramesh, what a beautiful scene, especially when the first rays of sunlight reach the mountain peak; so vibrant, so enchanting”, observes Mike, the male tourist.
“Yeah, beautiful for you but our people do not have time to regard the beauty of nature like this. Their days come and go routinely. They are more worried about earning their bread, even without butter! They take nature for granted, expecting it to readily support their needs. Tourists view it as an opportunity of a lifetime to experience the ecstasy and the bliss of nature; they feel as if they are in heaven whenever or however they visit this place.”
 Mike interrupts, “Ramesh, Look! What a nice baby goat, we never see them in our country. Right, Isabelle?”
Isabelle smiles and says, “Yeah- amazing! How lovely are these goats, buffaloes, and the vegetables in the kitchen garden, so lively, so fresh.”
Visiting the remote village as a tourist was nostalgic; totally lost was Isabelle, now a young woman. They had just arrived the previous week, had been in Kathmandu for three days, taken a mountain flight, and come directly to the village.
For a long time she had carefully kept her identity card with an old photograph glued to it. She now removed it from her purse. The card read, “Reetu Nepal, Grade Two, Roll no. one.” The name of the school- Shree Pancha Kumari Primary School, Dhading, formed the background.
Isabelle showed the card to Ramesh. Ramesh, a guide belonging to a trekking company had not realized the tourists’ motive in visiting the village. Ramesh too had attended Pancha Kumari School. He studied and took his SLC at the same school, some nine or ten years ago and knew everything about it.
Ramesh, who had never met his parents, had left the village on passing his SLC. It was also his first visit to this place since he had left. Although he lost his parents at an early age, the people in the village remembered how they loved and cared Ramesh over all those years. Ramesh also remembers his people telling him the story of his parents who had died right after he was born, one after the other, within a year’s time. The villagers a long time ago had also told him about his sister who was ten years older than him. That’s all he knew about his family. He is so indebted to the villagers for they all were compassionate to him which was more of an incentive to return than the orders his company had given.
Ramesh, looking at the card more seriously, reads aloud—Reetu Nepal, a card of a student who went to Pancha Kumari school years back in history for him. The date read as “Expiry: 1981 January 14”, 21 years ago from February 20, 2005 – the present date. Ramesh, also with his family name “Nepal”, recalls the story of the girl Reetu, doubting whether this Reetu was his own sister who he remembers the villagers telling him of who was sent to the city after their parents died.
An old woman from the village appeared and he showed her the picture. Sitting next to the tourists, “Aren’t you Ramesh, how can I forget you my love?” the old woman says, “oh, yeah! This picture – I remember.”
“Baboo! This seems like your sister, Reetu. She was both a brilliant and beautiful girl. We could not keep her with us. Some twenty to twenty two years ago, before you were born, there lived a fine family of three; a young couple with a daughter. They were your father, mother, and sister, Reetu. After your birth the couple died. Your father had a serious disease, HIV, which he caught from Bombay, the colorful city of India where he had gone to work for some years. And your mother followed the same fate. The man died almost five or six months before the woman, and before you were born. After the man’s death, the woman, who was also pregnant, gave birth to a boy. That’s you, Ramesh. She died some two months after your arrival.”
“ Reetu, your sister”—looking at the picture the old lady unravels, “so cute but little mischievous, I still remember had a hard time to live a life here in the village so we sent her to the city with Kainla, who had a mason’s job in Kathmandu. Kainla later told us that a kind gentleman took Reetu to a charity that accepted orphans for foreigners to adopt. A year later, when my husband went to Kathmandu, I asked him to find her and bring her back to the village, to our home if she wished. He said he could not trace her, a story from some 20 years ago. Who gave you this card, Ramesh?”
Ramesh replied, “The Amrikans.” This young couple have come from London to see our village. The company I work for asked me if I could be their guide. I accepted the deal and I am with them. The card belongs to this lady. The old woman looking at Isabelle, was puzzled for some time and tells Ramesh in Nepali to ask the young lady how she got that card. Ramesh, translating repeats, “Where did you get the card from?”
“This is my card. My own card”, Isabelle replies. “This is all I have since I was taken away from my birthplace, nothing more, and nothing I remember more than this except some shallow images of the hills, the mountains, and the clearing nearby. I was given everything; a new name, food, shelter, and support. I have been treasuring this card as though it were a part of my body and the same card has brought me back to this village now.

ट्रकबस साहित्य र इ–साहित्य

– मुकुन्दप्रसाद उपाध्याय

नेपाली साहित्यभित्र मौलाएका अनेक विधाहरूमा काव्यविधा साहित्यको प्राणका रूपमा रहेको छ। यो प्राणको उपप्राणका रूपमा काव्यभित्र गीत, गजल, मुक्तक, सायरी, हाइकु आदि विधाहरू पनि झाङ्गिएका छन्। यी नेपाली वाङ्मयका उपप्राणरूपी विधाहरूको सँगालो — क्वाँटीका रूपमा अर्को एउटा विधा पनि मौलाएकै मान्नुपर्छ, त्यो हो ट्रकबस साहित्य। नेपाल (र भारतमा पनि) का राजमार्गमा गुड्ने प्रायः सबै ट्रकबसको पछाडि दुई साइडलाइटको बीचको भाग यस्तै काव्यसिर्जनाहरूले भरिएको पाइन्छ। त्यहाँ हिन्दी, नेपाली, मैथिली र नेवारी भाषामा सायरी, मुक्तक, हाइकु आदि पढ्न पाइन्छ र कतिपय सिर्जना नितान्त मौलिकसमेत रहेको प्रतीत हुन्छ। तर दुर्भाग्य, त्यस्ता मौलिक सिर्जनाको स्रष्टा भने अज्ञात हुन्छ। उसको नाम–ठेगाना इतिहासको बहावमा विस्मृत छाल बराबर तुहिने क्रम जारी छ।

केही दिनअघि साँझपख भक्तपुरबाट धुलिखेल फर्कने क्रममा साँगाको उकालोमा अगाडिको ट्रकको गति कम हुँदा दुइटा ट्रकको पछाडिको लेखन पढ्ने सौभाग्य प्राप्त भयो। त्यसमध्ये एउटा थियो —

न आमाको माया, न बाबुको प्यार

ड्राइभरको जिन्दगी बेकार छ यार

त्यस्तै अर्को थियो —

भोकले भन्दैन चामलको भात

प्रेमले भन्दैन कहिल्यै जातभात

अनि निद्राले भन्दैन मसानघाट

यी दुई सिर्जना समसामयिक, मार्मिक र सुन्दर छन्। तर यसको अँध्यारो पक्षचाहिँ के हो भने यिनको मौलिक रचनाकारचाहिँ अज्ञात छ। त्यो पढेर मैले गम खाएँ अनि गम्न थालेँ — म त कुनै कवि होइन, न मूद्र्धन्य स्रष्टा नै। मेरो ठाउँमा देशका प्रतिष्ठित कवि कोही हुँदो हो त उसको मनमा कस्ता वैचारिक तरङ्गहरू उठ्थे होलान् ? यो सिर्जनाले उसलाई के प्रेरणा मिल्थ्यो होला ? कुनै आसुकवि भएको भए यी दुई सिर्जनाले थप नयाँ रचना स्फुरित हुन्थ्यो होला। आदिकवि भानुभक्तले आफ्नो जीवनमा बसट्रक देख्न पाएनन्। त्यसैले उनले प्रेरणा लिनुप¥यो घाँसीबाट। वर्तमानका कुनै नवागन्तुक मेरो ठाउँमा हुन् त उनले कस्तो कविता कोर्थे होलान् त ? सायद उनी लेख्थे होलान् —

भरजन्म स्टेयरिङ र ब्रेकमा ध्यान दिएर केही सीप कमायो

सिर्जनात्मक काम केही गरूँ भनेर ट्रकमा कविता बनायो

यातायात मजदुर त हो तर सिर्जना कस्तो ?

म स्थापित स्रष्टा भएर पनि आज यस्तो

मलाई लाग्यो अचेल दुई–चार शब्द खेलाउनासाथ नवोदित स्रष्टालाई गाउँ, टोल र जिल्लाहरूमा स्रष्टाको पगरी गुथाएर सम्मान गर्ने, दोसल्ला ओढाइदिने नवीन संस्कृति मौलाएको छ। यस्तो वर्तमान परिवेशमा ट्रकबसका पछाडि कोरिएका यस्ता रचनाहरूका स्रष्टालाई खोजी–खोजी तिनलाई पनि सम्मान गर्नुपर्ने होइन त ? यस दिशामा नेपाल प्रज्ञाप्रतिष्ठानलगायत अन्य साहित्यिक प्रतिष्ठानहरूको ध्यान जानुपर्ने होइन र ?

नेपाली साहित्यको इतिहासमा स्थापित भइसकेको यो बसट्रक साहित्यिक विधालाई अझ व्यवस्थित गर्नुपर्ने साहित्यानुरागीहरूको आग्रह अस्वाभाविक होइन। यसका साथै अब साहित्यिक प्रतिष्ठानहरूले अर्को नवीन विधातिर पनि ध्यान दिनुपर्ने बेला भइसकेको छ। त्यो हो इ–साहित्य। वर्तमान युग सूचना–प्रविधिको युग हो। इ–कमर्स, इ–बिजनेस, इ–बैङ्किङ आदि स्थापित भइसकेका छन्। हरेक युवायुवतीका हातहातमा मोबाइल, आइफोन, ल्यापटप, पामटप, आइप्याड आउन थालेको छ। फेसबुक, ट्विटर, ब्लग आदिमा नवीन विचार, नवीन दर्शन र नवीन रचनाहरू आउन थालिसकेका छन्। फेसबुक र ब्लगमा अभिव्यक्त समसामयिक विचारहरू पनि नूतन सामग्रीका रूपमा स्थापित हुने नै छन्। गत वर्ष अर्थसचिव रामेश्वर खनालले गलत राजनीतिक संस्कृति र दलीय हस्तक्षेपका कारण पदबाट राजिनामा दिएपछि फेसबुकमा लेख्नुभएका धारणाहरू अब्बल साहित्यका खुराकहरू थिए भने भारतमा हालसालै सिनेकलाकार राजेश खन्नाको निधन र शत्रुघ्न सिन्हाको सघन उपचारपछि अभिनेता अमिताभ बच्चनले आफ्नो ब्लगमा लेखेका विचारहरू गहन मर्मस्पर्शी र चिन्तनहरू हुन्। यिनीहरूजस्तै चिन्तनको सँगालो नै हो साहित्य भनेको।

नेपाली वाङ्मयको क्षितिजमा इ–साहित्य विधाले जोडदार दस्तक दिइरहेको छ। हामीले आफ्नो कान थुनेर वा आँखा चिम्लेर बस्न सक्ने अवस्था छैन। अब हाम्रा साहित्यसम्बन्धी राष्ट्रिय प्रतिष्ठानहरूले, त्रिभुवन विश्वविद्यालयको केन्द्रीय नेपाली विभागले, मदन पुस्तकालय आदिले समयमै यतातिर पनि ध्यान दिनुपर्ने बेला भइसकेको छ जस्तो लाग्छ। फेसबुक, ब्लग आदिको उपयोग गर्ने क्रममा राज्यले पनि त्यससम्बन्धी कानुनहरू ल्याएर त्यसलाई व्यवस्थित गर्दै लगेन भनेचाहिँ उच्छृङ्खलता र अश्लीलतातिर उन्मुख हुँदै जानेछ अनि हठात् राज्यले यस्ता प्रविधिहरूमाथि नै प्रतिबन्ध लगाउनुपर्ने आवाजहरू उठ्न थाल्नेछन्। यसबारे सचेत नागरिकहरूबाट समयमै सचेतताको अपेक्षा गर्न सकिन्छ।

Editorial

KUFIT sustains the commitment to continue though our appearance of late has been intermittent. This is one of the several good things we do and aspire to do in the University. So, our delay is reasonable.We promise not to fail. And we will keep on asking you to contribute by writing, by reading and by letting your own circle of friends know that we have this small platform.

We heartily thank our regular contributors. They have kept their promises despite having the same extent of engagement as we. They have helped us keep the zeal for keeping the forum alive. They have helped make it more professional and interdisciplinary by providing us diversity of themes and subjects.

We present KUFIT in a new template and platform. The previous site reportedly failed to open in certain places, and that some antiviruses blocked it. We hope the present site is more accessible. We hope it serves the purpose of intellectual engagements.

We expect your feedback.

In this issue:

1. The Omnipresent Force by Pushpa Raj Adhikary

2. सोमरस भनेको मदिरा नै हो त? by Mukunda Upadhyaya

3. Open and Distance Learning in Nepal... by Khagendra Acharya

4. अन्तरिक्ष-विज्ञान सम्बन्धमा केही चर्चा by Nirmala Mani Adhikary

5. Breathtaking Beijing by Kashiraj Pandey

6. On Identity by Hem Raj Kafle

The Omnipresent Force

– Pushpa Raj Adhikary

We call the pull of the earth on the bodies the force of gravity. The measure of this pull is called the weight of the body. There is no escape from the gravity and its eternal laws are valid even in the remotest parts of the universe. It equally pervades vacuum and the densest substance. There is no way of shielding from it or acting on it. Its action is less and less when we move away from earth but does not vanish completely. Gravity makes rivers flow down to the sea, keeps the atmosphere around the earth, and is the cause of tides in the oceans. We have to use force to overcome gravity if we want to move away from the earth.

Since time immemorial, living beings had to reckon with gravity, and learned to adapt to it. The force of gravity, which makes everything move towards it, was unexplained for ages. The first man to develop a scientific theory of gravity and apply it to study of the universe was the great Englishman, Sir Isaac Newton.

The anecdote that Newton discovered the law of gravity by watching an apple fall from a tree may or may not be true. It has been said that he invented this story to get rid of people demanding explanation of just how he discovered the great law. Today, any high school student knows this law with such an ease that it seems strange indeed that there was a time when learned men had not the slightest idea about it. However, it is not as it may appear to us and it took the genius of Newton to discover it.

Newton’s studies convinced him that not only earth attracts an apple but an apple also attracts the earth. In fact, every material body attracts other material bodies towards it. But then why the apple moves towards the earth but not the earth towards the apple? This attraction or pull or force exists between the earth and all heavenly bodies too. This is known as the force of gravitation.Any material object attracts all other material objects and this attraction is in proportion to the weight of an object. The heavier a body, the stronger is the attraction. The weight of the earth is enormous compared to the weight of an apple or a man. Hence, the attraction exerted by the earth on other objects is also very strong compared to the attraction of an apple on earth or by a man on earth. This attraction of the earth makes every body move towards earth. The attraction between two material bodies increases if they come closer or if their weights are increased.

About seventy years before Newton’s time, the great German Scientist Johannes Kepler discovered the law as how planets moved around the sun. But in Kepler’s time nobody knew why the planets moved as explained by him. Newton, with the help of the law of universal gravitation, could explain why the planets moved around the sun as explained by Kepler. The universal law of gravitation found another brilliant confirmation in the discovery of the planet Neptune. Astronomers had long discovered that the planet Uranus occasionally appeared to stray from its orbit. Sometimes it would slow down its motion and again it would go faster as if drawn by some invisible force. The law of gravitation predicted that the anomaly in the motion of Uranus was due to the presence of another planet farther from Uranus and soon astronomers discovered a new planet Neptune.

For many decades Newton’s theory of Gravitation appeared perfect. But then facts began to accumulate which could not be explained by the law of universal gravitation alone. One of these is the Seeliger paradox. This paradox goes this way. The universe is infinite and is infinitely variable. Its lifetime too, is unlimited. It is more or less filled with material bodies and so can be assumed to possess some mean density of matter. Seelinger decided to apply the universal law of gravitation to determine the gravitational force which an infinite universe would exert at any point within it. This force was found proportional to the radius of the universe. As the radius of the universe is infinite, so the force would be. But this is not the case. Does it mean that the law of Universal gravitation is not valid on universal scale?

Another phenomenon in which the conclusions of gravitational theory did not quite agree with observations was found in the displacement of the orbit if the planet Mercury. Very accurate calculations of the orbit of Mercury reveal that the point closer to the sun suffers a precession or displacement. For a long time this precession of the orbits of Mercury remained unexplained. It took a revolution in science to explain it, and the revolution was carried out by a young German Scientist, Albert Einstein.

It is a long known fact that if a gun fires at a distance we see the flash of light some time before we hear the sound. This tells us that sound travels in a far less speed that the light. It was possible to measure the speed of sound in the surface of the earth as 330 meters per second. But it is much harder to measure the speed of light because light travels with an incredible speed of 3,00000 kilometers per second. A ray of light can circle the earth in just over 0.1 second i.e. one tenth of a second. For a long time people were unable to measure the speed of light. It was finally measured by observing the eclipses of the satellites of the planet Jupiter from two points on earth’s orbit around the sun, when the earth was closed and farther from Jupiter. Today it is measured in laboratory conditions to a high degree of precession by means of rotating mirrors. In fact, not only light but all electromagnetic waves travel with light’s speed as the electromagnetic field moves through space.

But how do electromagnetic fields propagate through space? Does gravitational force also propagate through space in the form of gravitational field? If so, how fast does a gravitational field travel? As fast as sound in air, light in vacuum or with some other speed? Can the attraction between the bodies happen directly without the participation of the intervening medium? Do the gravitational force and gravitational field also propagate with the same speed of light or have a finite velocity? A new scientific theory was needed to explain the propagation of electromagnetic field through space and its foundation was laid in 1905-1915 by Albert Einstein in his special and general theories of relativity based on the geometries of Lobachevski and Riemann.

One of the fundamental conclusions of the special theory of relativity, which defines the interconnection between space and time, is the equivalence of mass and energy. The theory states that a moving body carries kinetic energy, hence its mass is greater than when it is at rest. The greater a body’s latent energy is, the greater is its mass. A cup of hot coffee is heavier than cold coffee in the same cup. The famous equation E=mc2 is Einstein’s formula of mass-energy equivalence.

But what is meant by a body’s mass? The mechanical concept of mass states that mass is a measure of a body’s inertia. Hence, mass can be expressed in terms of force and the acceleration which it imparts to the body. In physics, mass measured in this way is known as inertial mass. But mass can also be measured from Newton’s formula of gravitation. This mass of bodies which may be at rest relative to one another is known as gravitational mass. The physical interpretation of inertial and gravitational mass are different but quantitatively have, to date, been found to be the same no matter how they are measured. This led Einstein to think that inertia and gravitation must have a common origin. So, if a body’s inertial mass varies with the velocity of motion, then, he reasoned, the gravitational mass should also vary with the velocity of motion.

Einstein’s identification of inertia and gravity on the basis of the equality of inertial and gravitational mass of great significance. It enabled him, in 1915, to develop the general theory of relativity, which is the modern theory of gravitation. This modern theory offers a much more exact and profound explanation of the properties of the bodies than Newton’s theory. Einstein’s theory was a revolution in physics which provided explanation for many hitherto unexplained phenomena. But it would hardly be useful to present the theory in common language as it contains largely mathematical, extremely complicated equations belonging to the class of non-linear differential equations in spite of the clarity of its physical meaning.

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