kufit – Page 9 – Interdisciplinary Discourse

Media houses and training institutions

– Nirmala Mani Adhikary

In view of the acute shortage of adequately trained personnel in mass media, the question of building up human resources must be a priority of media houses. The growth of mass media studies in universities is linked with the development of the media. The development of the mass media and of advanced communications technologies has been to increase the number of media education institutions all over the world. In Nepal also, after the restoration of democracy in 1990, the number of media education institutions has increased. Apart from training institutes, Universities also have started Communication studies.

Mass media studies are fairly recent phenomena, started only at the turn of the twentieth century. In most countries of Africa and Asia mass media studies have been introduced in the last few decades. In teaching and research, the field is still in its early stages of development and the same is the case with Nepal.

Mass media can create the necessary climate of modernization, which includes vital ingredients like innovativeness, achievement motivation and educational and occupational aspirations. There is a positive relation between economic development and mass media, which acts as reflector of the development process in society.

In the process of modernization people consume more goods, which also includes media products. They use more prints, film, and broadcast media. Modern societies, then, are media dependent societies. Their populations make use of the media for achieving their desired goals. Thus the advancement in the field of mass media is necessary for the over all advancement of any country and Nepal is no exception.

While universities appear to be increasingly involved in communication education they cannot in all cases provide all the practical training that professionals need. Thus various specialized training centers and mass media organization also play an important role. Especially, media houses can provide specific courses of practical, technical and occupational instruction suitably adapted to the circumstances and demands of their work.

While talking about journalism and other mass media professions we should take into account the importance of information and informatics in all branches and sectors of national life, the sensitivity of all societies about news produced and diffused, the rapid development of technology, and increasing demand of specialization. The quality of any system is largely governed by the caliber of those who operate it. The lack of trained manpower is the basic reason for deficiencies observed in the field of mass media in Nepal. It may therefore be considered that higher-level education and training in mass communication profession is of paramount importance. The efforts of only universities and training institutes are not sufficient in this regard. This should also lead to even more extensive and genuine cooperation between media educational institutions and media houses and cooperation between them is equally important. Mass media should no longer be regarded merely as an incidental service and its development left to chance.

[In the print version, the article was published as: Adhikary, Nirmala Mani. (2002, November 1). Media houses and training institutions. The Kathmandu Post, p. 5.]

महाकाव्य सम्बन्धी पूर्वीय परिभाषा

रामचन्द्र पौडेल

कविता विधामा सान्यत: स्वीकारिने पाँच उत्तरोत्तर विस्तारित श्रेणीहरूमध्येका वृहत् तथा वृहत्तर, बृहत्तम दुबै रूपको संज्ञा हो—महाकाव्य। प्राकृत परम्परामा पाँच सन्धिभन्दा केही कम (चार) सन्धि लिने ‘काव्य’ पनि अझै देखा पर्छ भने संस्कृत—परम्परामा ‘सकल—कथा’ का सामान्य ‘महाकाव्य’ र ‘आर्ष महाकाव्य’ पनि छन् । आनन्दवद्र्धनले प्रबन्धकाव्यमा कथावस्तुको सृदृढ योजना र रस—प्रतिपादन हुनुपर्छ भनेका छन् । कथावस्तुअन्तर्गत नाटककाव्य सन्धि र सन्ध्यङ्गको प्रयोग यसमा पनि अनुकूल अलङ्कारहरूको प्रयोग हुनुपर्छ भन्ने उनको विचार पाइन्छ । वास्तवमा एउटा कथात्मक गठन र गुम्फन हुन्छ। यसरी कथात्मक ढाँचामा जीवन र जगत्को विशद् पक्षको काव्यात्मक प्रस्तुति हुन्छ। प्रवन्धकाव्यलाई दुई रूपमा विभाजन गर्न सकिन्छ— (१) महकाव्य (२) खण्डकाव्य। यहाँ खण्डकाव्यभन्दा महाकाव्यसम्बन्धी सन्दर्भ अपेक्षित भएकाले त्यसमै केन्द्रित हुनु उपयुक्त हुन्छ।

महाकाव्यसम्बन्धी पूर्वीय मान्यताहरूको विषयमा खोजमेल गर्ने हो भने यस सम्बन्धमा सर्वप्रथम कलम चलाउने पूर्वीय आचार्य भामह (छैटौं शताब्दी), रुद्रट (सातौँ शताब्दी), दण्डी (आठौँ शताब्दी), हेमचन्द्र (बाह्रौँ शताब्दी) र विश्वनाथ (चौधौ शताब्दी) ले महाकाव्यको स्वरूप रपरिभाषा एवं सम्बन्धबारे चर्चा गरेको देखिन्छ, यसमा भामह र दण्डीको विचार उल्लेख्य छ । जसलाई संक्षेपमा यहाँ प्रस्तुत गरिन्छ। अचार्य भामहले महाकाव्यमा जीवनका विविध रूप र कार्यहरूका वर्णन भएको लामो कथानक हुनुपर्छ भनेका छन् । महान्कार्यको प्रस्तुति गर्ने महान् चरित्र भएको व्यक्ति यसका नायक हुनुपर्छ । यसमा नाटकका पञ्चसन्धिहरू आवश्यक हुन्छन् र सर्गहरू आबद्धभएको हुनुपर्छ । महाकाव्यको भाषाशैली शिष्ट, विशिष्ट पदविन्यास र अलङ्कारयोजनाले आबद्ध हुनुपर्छ र यो सुखान्त हुनुपर्छ भनेका छन् । नायकको अभ्युदय र विजयको वर्णन पनि हुन आवश्यक छ । दूतसन्देश, यात्रावर्णन, युद्धआदेशको वर्णन हुनुपर्छ भन्ने भामहको कथन छ । नायकको लागि महान् व्यक्तिको चरित्र र महान् कार्यको प्रस्तुति हुनु आवश्यक छ । (भामह, काव्यालङ्कार, १: १९—२१)

भामहपछि आचार्य रुद्रटले पनि काव्यालङ्कार (रुद्रालङ्कार) नामक ग्रन्थमा महाकाव्य सम्बन्धी आफ्ना चिन्तन अघि सारेको देखिन्छ। उनले महाकाव्यका सन्दर्भमा यस्ता धारणा व्यक्त गरेका छन्– ‘महाकाव्यमा उत्पाद्य—अनुत्पाद्य दुवै लामा पद्यबद्ध हुनुपर्छ र यसमा प्रसङ्गअनुसार अवान्तर कथा अर्थात् पुराण र कथा, आख्यायिका वा तत्व हुनु पर्दछ । कथा सर्गबद्ध नाटकीयतत्व युक्त हुनु पर्दछ। यसमा जीवनको समग्रताको चित्रण कुनै घटनाप्रधान युद्ध वा साहसिक कार्य आदिको आश्रयले अलङ्कृत वर्णन, प्रकृतिचित्रण, विभित्र नगर, देश, भुवन, स्वर्ग, नदीको वर्णन—विधान हुनु पर्दछ। महाकाकाव्यका नायक द्विजकुलोत्पत्र, सर्वगुणसम्पत्र, महान वीर, विजिगीषु, शक्तिमान्, नीतिज्ञ र कुशल राजा हुनु पर्छ । यसमा प्रतिनायक र त्यसको कुलको पनि वर्णन हुन्छ। कथानक कल्पित वा अकल्पित जुनसुकै भए पनि महान् हुन्छ। यस कथानकभित्र अवान्तर कथाहरू पनि समाविष्ट हुन सक्छन् । यसले युगजीवनका विविध पक्षको चित्रण गर्दछ। नायक सर्वगुण सम्पन्‍न, द्विज कुलोत्पन्न, शक्तिमान,नीतिज्ञ र कुशल राजा हुनुपर्छ। महाकाव्यमा प्रतिनायक र त्यसका कुलको पनि वर्णन हुन्छ। अन्तमा नायकको विजय देखाइन्छ, प्रतिनायकको हैन। महाकाव्यमा कुनै महत् उद्देश्य,चतुर्वर्ग फलप्राप्तिका साथमा सबै रस पनि हुनु पर्छ र रसात्मकता, एकोद्देश्यता अभित्र रूपम प्राप्ति भएको हुनु पर्दछ । महाकाव्यमा अलौकिक र अतिप्राकृतिक तत्व पनि हुन्छन् तर मानिसबाट गरिएको असम्भव अस्वाभाविक घटना हुनु हुँदैन (रुद्रट, २०३२ : ५–७)। रुद्रटले नायक र कथा तथा उपकथाका सम्बन्धमा नयाँ कुरा उल्लेख गरेको देखिन्छ।

रुद्रटपछि आचार्य दण्डीको विवेचनामा विस्तृतता पाइन्छ। दण्डीले ‘महाकाव्यमा कथावस्तु, नायक, रस, चतुर्वर्गमा एउटाको प्राप्‍ति प्राकृतिक वर्णन, अलङ्कारको प्रयोग, छन्द योजना र सर्गबद्धता हुनुपर्छ भनेका छन्। कथावस्तुको आधारको रूपमा ऐतिहासिक सदाश्रित हुनुपर्छ भन्ने दण्डीको भनाइ छ। गठनको सन्दर्भमा नाटकीय सन्धिले युक्त भएको श्रृङ्खलाबद्ध कथावस्तुको पक्षमा उनले आफ्नो विचार व्यक्त गरेका छन्। महाकाव्यको प्रारम्भ मङ्गलाचरणअन्तर्गत आशीर्वादात्मक, नमस्कारात्मक र वस्तुनिर्देशात्मक हुनुपर्छ भन्ने दण्डीको कथन पाइन्छ। सर्गबद्धताको क्रममा सर्ग ज्यादै ठूलो हुनु हुँदैन भन्ने पनि उनको विचार छ। उदात्त गुणले युक्त नायकको कल्पना पनि दण्डीले गरेका छन्। महाकाव्यमा रसको लागि उनले विप्रलम्भ श्रृङ्गारलाई महत्व दिएका छन्। महाकाव्यको उद्देश्यमा धर्म, अर्थ, काम र मोक्षमध्ये एउटाको प्रतिपादन हुनुपर्छ भन्ने दण्डीको कथन छ। त्यस्तै महाकाव्यमा छन्द—प्रयोग र सर्गान्तमा छन्दपरिवर्तनको आवश्यकतामा दण्डीले जोड दिएका छन्। उनको कथनानुसार प्रकृति—वर्णनअन्तर्गत विभिन्न ऋतु, पर्वत, नगर, समुद्र, बगैँचा, जलविहार, उत्सव, सूर्योदय आदिको वर्णन छ।’(दण्डी, काव्यदर्श, १: १६—२१)

नवौं शताब्दीका ध्वन्यालोक ग्रन्थ प्रस्तुत गर्ने आनन्दवर्धन र दसौं शताब्दीमा त्यसै ग्रन्थको टीका लेख्ने अभिनव गुप्तले पद्यकाव्यका प्रभेद देखाएका छन्। तीमध्ये नवौं प्रभेद सकलकथामा ललित महाकाव्यका र दसौं प्रभेद सर्गबन्धमा आर्ष महाकाव्यका लक्षको निर्देश सूत्रात्मक रूपमा गरेको छनक मिल्छ। यी दुबै विद्वान्हरूले महकाकव्यका प्रयोगगत रूढीबाट अभिप्रेरित थप लक्षणहरू भने बताएनन्। यसो भए पनि तिनले ध्वनिवादको स्थापना गर्ने क्रममा प्रबन्धकल्पना सम्बन्धी मान्यताको चर्चा गर्दा प्रबन्धात्मक रसाभिव्यक्तिका निम्ति सुन्दर मूलकथाको निर्माण, त्यस कथाको रसानुकूलता, त्यसमा रहनुपर्ने सन्ध्यङ्ग (पञ्चसन्धि) को सङ्गठन, त्यसका खास—खास स्थलमा आवश्यकता अनुसार गरिनुपर्ने विशेष रसहरूको उद्दीपन र प्रकाशन अनि प्रधान रसको खोज तथा रसानुकूल अलङ्कार—विधानको अपेक्षा (ध्वन्यालोकतृतीय उद्योत, कारिका १०—१४) जस्ता जुन विशिष्टताहरूको उल्लेख गरेका छन्। तिनले महाकाव्यात्मक प्रवन्ध—कल्पनालाई नै औँल्याएको बोध हुन आउँछ। यहाँनेर आनन्दवर्धनले प्रतिपादन गरेको ध्वनिवादी चिन्तनका प्रतिक्रियास्वरूप आचार्य कुन्तक (दसौं शताब्दी) ले स्थापित गरेको वक्रोक्तिवाद अन्तर्गत निरूपित प्रवन्ध—वक्रतासम्बन्धी मान्यताले पनि प्रबन्ध काव्य (महाकाव्य) लाई नै काव्यको सर्वश्रेष्ठ प्राप्ति (‘‘प्रबन्धेषु कविन्द्राणां कीर्तिकन्देषु किं पुन: वक्रोक्तिजीवितं ४, 26: ४३) ठह¥याएको कुरो पनि स्मरणीय नै छ।

महाकाव्य चिन्तनको क्षेत्रमा कलम चलाउने आचार्यमा हेमचन्द्र देखा पर्दछन्। उनले काव्यानुशासन नामक ग्रन्थमा महाकाव्यलाई परिभाषित गरेको देखिन्छ— ‘पद्यबद्ध रूपमा प्रायः संस्कृत, प्राकृत, अपभ्रंश, अग्राम्य भाषामा विभिन्न कथानकलाई लिएर शब्द वैचित्य, अर्थ वैचित्य, रसयुक्त, छन्दोबद्ध एवम् लोक रञ्‍जक गुण बोकेको काव्य नै महाकाव्य हो’ (हेमचन्द्र, सन् १९३४: ३९५) भनेका छन्।

संस्कृत महाकाव्य—चिन्तनका परम्परामा देखा परेका अन्तिम महान् विद्वान आचार्यविश्व नाथ हुन्। उनले आफ्नो साहित्यदर्पण भन्ने ग्रन्थमा काव्यका भेदोपभेदको लक्षण निर्देश गर्दा महाकाव्यका पद्य—प्रबन्धको एक प्रकारका रूपमा रहेको महाकाव्यका लक्षणपूर्वक उल्लेख गरेका छन्। यिनी खासगरी आपूmभन्दा पूर्ववर्ति आचार्य दण्डीबाट प्रभावित भएर महाकाव्यको चर्चा गर्छन्। उनले प्रस्तुत गरेको महकाव्य सम्बन्धी परिभाषा यस प्रकार छ—

महाकाव्य सर्गबद्ध हुन्छ यसमा देव सत्वंशीय क्षेत्रीय वा धीरोदात्त प्रकृतिको कुनै कुलीन राजा वा एकै कुलका धार्मिक धेरै राजा पनि नायक हुन सक्छन्। यसमा श्रृङ्गार, वीरशान्त मध्ये कुनै एक रसलाई मुख्यरसका रूपमा व्यक्त गरी अरु सबै रसलार्ई अङ्गीरसको रूपमा प्रस्तुत गर्नुपर्दछ। यसमा सबै नाट्यसन्धिको प्रयोग हुनुपर्छ। यसको कथावस्तु इतिहासमूलक र अन्य सज्जनाश्रित हुनुपर्छ भने त्यसमध्ये कुनै एकलाई फलकाव्यको थालनी नमस्कारात्मक, आशीर्वादात्मक, वस्तुनिर्देशात्मक हुनुपर्छ। यसमा खलपात्रको निन्दा र सत्पात्रको प्रशंसा गरिनुपर्छ। यसमा आठभन्दा बढी सर्ग होऊन् ती न छोटा वा नाना छन्दको प्रयोग गरिएपछि अन्त्यमा छन्द परिवर्तन गरियोस। सर्गान्तमा भावी कथाको सङ्केत पनि दिइयोस् । यसमा सूर्य, चन्द्र, रात्री, प्रदेश, अन्धकार, दिन, प्रातकाल, मध्याह्न, सिकार, युद्ध, पर्वत, ऋतु, वन, समुद्र, सम्भोग वा विप्रलम्भ श्रृङ्गार, मुनि, स्वर्ग, पुर, यज्ञ, यात्रा, विवाह, कुमारजन्म आदि उचित विषयको मनोहर वर्णन गर्नुपर्छ । ग्रन्थ वा महाकाव्यको नाम कवि, नायक, प्रतिनायको नाम वा कथात्मक घटनामा आधारित हुनुपर्छ भने अवान्तरमा सर्गको शीर्षक विषय अनुसार राख्नु पर्छ” (विश्वनाथ, साहित्यदर्पण, ६,३१५—३२८: ५४९—५५१) ।

यस प्रकार विश्वनाथको महाकाव्यमान्यता सबभन्दा पछिल्लो रूपमा देखा पर्दछ। यिनी चौधौँ शताब्दिका काव्यशास्त्रीय विद्वान् मानिन्छन् । यतिखेर संस्कृतमा वक्रमार्गी महाकाव्यको युग समाप्त भएको थियो। यिनले आर्ष महाकाव्यलाई त्यति हेरेनन् र वैचित्यमार्गी काव्यका आधारमा यिनले महाकाव्य सिद्धान्तको निर्माण गरे। यिनको परिभाषा १४ श्‍लोकमा फैलिएको विस्तृत रूपको देखापर्छ संस्कृत महाकाव्यमा ह्रासका कारणहरू (प्रतिभा, पाण्डित्य र कलात्मकताको कमी) पनि त्यहाँ साङ्केतित छन्। भामह र दण्डीजस्तै महाकाव्यलाई यान्त्रिकताको खुराक यिनले पनि दिएनन् भन्‍न सकिन्‍न।

विश्‍वनाथपछि संस्कृत साहित्य परम्पराका अन्तिम आचार्यका रूपमा जगन्‍नाथ देखा पर्छन्। तर, महाकाव्यका सम्बन्धमा उनको ठोस चिन्तन देखिँदैन। उनले रसगङ्गाधरमा काव्यका लक्षण, भेद एवं रसका विषयमा चर्चा गरे पनि महाकाव्यका सम्बन्धमा उनको ठोस परिभाषा पाउन सकिन्न । उनले दिएको काव्य परिभाषा यस्तोछ– रमणीयार्थप्रतिपादक शब्द काव्य: अर्थात् रमणीय अर्थ प्रदान गर्ने शब्द नै काव्य हो (जगन्‍नाथ, सन् १९५५: १) ।

यस प्रकार पूर्वीय सबै विद्वान र विश्‍वनाथका मान्यताहरूलाई हेर्दा के प्रष्ट हुन्छ भने यिनले त्यति आधारभूत मान्यता दिएनन्। अङ्गीरस र एक वर्गको विशेष प्राप्ति भनाइ मात्रै यिनको आधारभूत चेत रह्यो। समग्रमा भत्रुपर्दा भामह कम रूढीग्रस्त, कम समसामयिकताबाट प्रभावित विस्तृत आबाज छन् भने त्यसपछिका उल्लेख्य आबाज रूद्रट हुन्। दण्डी तथा विश्वनाथ थोरै मात्रमा उल्लेख्य हुन पुगेको तथ्य स्मरणीय छ। महाकाव्यका सम्बन्धमा महत्वपूर्ण व्याख्या र विश्लेषण गर्ने समालोचकहरूमा भामह, दण्डी, रुद्रट, हेमचन्द्र र विश्वनाथ देखिन्छन् । उनीहरूका अवधारणालाई समेटेर महाकाव्यको परिभाषा यसरी दिन सकिन्छ–

महाकाव्य सर्गबद्ध, छन्दोबद्ध र पञ्‍चसन्धियुक्त त्यस्तो अलङ्कृत भाषिक संरचना हो जसमा ख्यात वा कल्पित विषयवस्तुको उपयोग गरी कुनै महान् सत्पात्रको चरित्रचित्रण र चतुर्वर्गको अभिव्यक्तिमा रसभावनिरन्तरता कायम राखी नायकाभ्युदय वा जीवनको सुखन्तताको अभिव्यक्ति गरिन्छ। (महादेव अवस्थी, आधुनिक नेपाली महाकाव्य र खण्डकाव्यको विमर्श, २०६४:२२)

यसरी महाकाव्यसम्बन्धी पूर्वीय परिभाषा विभिन्‍न विद्वानहरूले दिएका छन्। महाकाव्यको सत पक्षको प्रशंसा र असत पक्षको निन्दामा जोड दिए पनि त्यसले समाजलाई मर्यादाको पथमा लैजान महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका खेल्नुपर्छ भन्‍ने सन्देश दिन सफल भएको छ।

(अन्त्यारम्भ महाकाव्यको कृतिपरक अध्ययन शीर्षकको शोधपत्रको अंश)

Global Warming

– Eak Duwadi

Sometimes I wonder how the indigenous people were so wise that they were aware of today’s problem thousands of years back. For example, whatever they used to consume were biodegradable and they always encouraged others to keep soil, water and air pure by claiming them sacred. Modern life is just the opposite so we have been facing several threats. Pertinent one is Global Warming — an increase in the average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere, especially an unrelenting increase sufficient to cause climatic change. It has become the most debated topic presently. Can we solve it?

There was Ice Age when most parts of the earth were covered with ice. Gradually, it got melted forming many seas engulﬁng many settlements though there were no greenhouse gases which comprise methane, water vapor, carbon dioxide and ozone. Since the Industrial Revolution, the need for energy to run machines has steadily increased. Some energy, like the energy you need to do your homework, comes from the food you eat. But other energy, like the energy that makes cars run and much of the energy used to light and heat our homes, comes from fuels like coal and oil – fossil fuels. Burning these fuels releases greenhouse gases.

All climate changes occurred naturally. However, during the Industrial Revolution, we began altering our climate and environment through agricultural and industrial practices. The Industrial Revolution was a time when people began using machines to make life easier. It started more than 200 years ago and changed the way humans live. Before the Industrial Revolution, human activity released very few gases into the atmosphere, but now through population growth, fossil fuel burning, and deforestation, we are affecting the mixture of gases in the atmosphere.

Global warming may be a big problem, but there are many little things we can do to make a difference. If we try, most of us can do our part to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases that we put into the atmosphere. Many greenhouse gases come from things we do every day. As we have learned, these greenhouse gases trap energy in the atmosphere and make the Earth warmer. Driving a motorbike or using electricity is not wrong. We just have to be smart about it. Some people use less energy by carpooling. For example, four people can ride together in one car instead of driving four cars to work.

Thus, educate yourself, save electricity, bike and bus, and walk, talk to your family and friends, plant trees, recycle, when you buy, buy Cool Stuff and use Solar Energy to lessen the effect.

These instructions were not uncommon in our country. But when Algore, a former vice president of the USA told us at Bali about it, our eyes are opened even though our obsessions to gadgets and vehicles have not stopped. Thus, it is the time to revive the environment friendly approaches not only to protect ourselves but also to be the world leader as Nepal still has the natural scenery which is rare in the developed countries.

Growing with English

– Hem Raj Kafle

I am a learner throughout. I have been a teacher for more than seventeen years. I am self-trained, or trained by time and exposure. It has never occurred to me that I could have done anything other than teaching and would have been better elsewhere. I do not have a big name, neither do I aspire to assume one, but believe that I have not been too small where I am.

I have taught in all levels from Nursery to Masters at different places and different odd times of my life. This gives me some confidence to assert that my life as a teacher embodies the lives of many teachers in Nepal. Most of the past years have been filled with a kind of activism for updating myself against many inconveniences, both as a person and a professional, with English at the center stage. English came to my life without a conscious plan, and naturally long before I happened to decide to become a teacher.

I don’t clearly recall if anyone ever told me (not) to become a teacher. The cliché that one comes to teaching after failing elsewhere does not apply to my life since I did not explore other areas. Moreover, I don’t think a teacher’s responsibilities and achievements are comparable with those of others. In fact, the cliché does not either apply to any real teacher’s life even though they choose teaching after exploring different jobs. It is my first choice and now an instinct. I began to teach as soon as I learned to read and write. I had three brothers more than two classes below me. When I was in grade two, they began to learn the alphabets. So, I would be asked to teach them. Well, this does not sound big, does it? But in a traditional joint family the elders – big or small – naturally teach the younger.

When I was in grade four, I already was the “first boy.” This meant that in the succeeding years there would be more kids around me during exams from the same class and below. Thus, our house became an unregistered night school all the year round. Sister’s classmates, brothers’ classmates, my classmates, and those “grown-ups” who would like to be literate belatedly, flocked in our veranda. They were brahmins, chhetris, magars, limbus, rais, and dalits. My parents and grandparents were ever appreciative of this learning community. Father acted as the head teacher of a sort. And there was not only study but singing and dancing till late. The “first boy” had the responsibility to teach mathematics, English, and songs. We had more than a dozen village kids to sleep in our house every night. I passed my childhood in such a semi-dormitory house. Having grown up with a multi-ethnic company, I did not learn to be an orthodox ‘bahun.’

When I was in grade seven, some villagers including my father decided to begin a tuition class in the morning. I was to take turns to teach there. Later, they decided to register it as a primary school, and someone with an SLC took it over. The school, begun as a tutorial in a hut, runs today as a lower secondary school in the middle of the village. I was one of the founders! I contributed in two ways: first, by sparing time to teach the kids in the morning, for a long time, and second, by taking part in the fund-raising deusis every Tihar. In fact, four of us – father, sister, elder brother and myself–helped it grow till it found some eager SLC-qualified teachers.

I first entered a formal classroom in 1992, the year I took my Intermediate Second exams and was left free to explore things. Someone temporarily vacated a post in the school from where I had graduated, during his B.Ed. practice teaching. I was invited to share his classes for two months. I taught everything they assigned. I taught Maths, English, social studies, moral science, science etc. etc. This opportunity instilled in me the zeal to choose classrooms.

I became an English teacher because I studied English in the university. I studied it as my major subject and gradually acquired it for life skills. To me teaching English is not limited to teaching it as a foreign language, but helping human beings to broaden the perception of the world through communication, creativity and discourse. This submerges the general notion of teaching into my understanding of life as a constant alternation of learning and unlearning. And the following lines from one of my articles in The Kathmandu Post may suffice to sum up my experiences so far:

The fact that teaching is of value as long as human beings live in the earth with their naturally inquisitive minds always underscores the existence of teachers. The fact that you are needed and respected must keep you attached to this pious job and social service. Teaching is not a thankless job, though the rewards are not immediate and obvious. The real reward lies in being useful to the society. A teacher is an adventurer; a person who seeks novel spaces in every adventure as a test of his/her strength to persevere odds of life in the mission of helping minds to thrive. (“On Teaching and Teachers” 1 August 2007)

There is a simple condition for becoming a teacher: that you must be able to teach. It is not the question of having high intelligence, but of being able to use whatever intelligence you have so as to impart at least some portion of your knowledge. Anyone with this ability can come to teaching and become successful in course of time. What matters is your desire to update. Teaching and stagnation do not go together. When they do, teaching fails. To teach is to know: to know is to be able to teach.

It’s already seventeen years since I first stood before a few dozen curious eyes. I am still struggling to emulate myself. I am thirstier everyday – enjoying it for being able to do it.

Editorial

It takes much shorter time to dismiss several good ideas than to generate one. Indifference is more discouraging than dismissal. KUFIT team’s principal concern lies in ensuring that we serve strictly academic and professional purposes, and that our genuine efforts are neither dismissed nor regarded with indifference and mistrust. Our professional, or rather emotional, security lies in our sense of being surrounded by committed, competent and enthusiastic academics. Thus, we sustain the zeal for interdisciplinary discourses and would like to thank all our contributors for their timely participation.

There should be no need to clarify that we have no mission to seek sheer name and recognition above our present positions. Since our goal is to share knowledge, rooted in the realization that positive learning transcends every worldly preoccupation against the thirst for digging gold, our work rises above any show of indifference or mistrust. Our determination to continue is a reward in itself. KUFIT embodies the desire to establish a discourse community in Kathmandu University, a community where one speaks beyond his disciplinary coterie as/to human beings who might have taken different professional routes but bear the identical perceptions of what goes around.

We have always expected only one scholarly attitude from our colleagues – the readiness to own and augment professional conversations, the zeal to tell others how ideas work where we belong and how these ideas might benefit those who do not belong. Please be a part of KUFIT sending us posts and observations, and promoting a culture of mutual growth.

Mathematics and Nonmathematicians

— Pushpa Raj Adhikary

For most mathematics is like an iceberg, a small visible portion above water and nine times as much submerged below, invisible. Most of us who have come to know a little of mathematics, under rather uncomfortable conditions, have no idea what mathematics is the way it is hard for us to form a clear idea about the submerged part of the iceberg. The best thing to do about an iceberg is to take an about turn to go to the opposite way. Most of us do the same about turn in case of mathematics as well.

Have those who take an about turn to go the opposite way ever tried to fathom what the subject is really about, what their own misimpressions are, and what sense it makes to those interested? Perhaps what puzzles non-mathematicians is the difficulty to realize mathematics. The explosion of the first atom bomb in 1945 was a reality out of a very famous mathematical equation of Einstein which says that E is equal to M C squared. If it makes no sense to you or to all non-mathematicians, it is because you never bothered to learn more about mathematics than what you know.

All the intelligent non-mathematicians may say, so what if I cannot make sense of the mathematical equation of Einstein while I know those disciplines of knowledge where mathematics has little or no use? But it is time to remind them that mathematics is no longer a subject they can dismiss easily. Mathematics is increasingly becoming important not to science and engineering but in industry, business, military affairs and many other human activities and innovations of new technologies in almost all areas of human endeavor. Space and deep sea explorations for tapping entirely new sources of energy, food and raw materials necessary to continue our development are impossible without the development of mathematics. So, there is a growing need for more and more persons to enhance their knowledge of mathematics. Mathematics no longer remains a subject of intellectual pursuit for a few but knowledge essential to create and respond to your daily requirements.

Why mathematics puzzles non-mathematicians is because they find it hard to decide what it actually is. Is it science? It is an art? Is it a language? In fact, mathematics is science, language, and art. Among all existing sciences, mathematics is the most general science. It is not restricted to any particular area of knowledge, real or imaginary. Mathematics deals with any objects, or observations, real or imaginary, and any thought however abstract it is. Numbers can count not only motor cars and people, but stars on the sky and molecules on a drop of water. No other science is as general as mathematics.

Mathematics is an art where creativity of highest order can be displayed by means of language, symbols, and a combination of both. Mathematics is also an art of reasoning and deduction. From such statements which are assumed to be true, we deduce, by reasoning, other statements that must inevitably follow them. For example, from the fact that 2 plus 5 equals seven, and some other statements, it can be deduced that 2222 plus 5555 equals 7777. No other art equals mathematics in the way of skillfully and correctly deducing.

Mathematics is also a language, the language of expressing scientific ideas. Natural laws are expressed correctly in the language of mathematics. Moreover, it is a language of calculation. In mathematics, any idea can be named, discussed, analyzed, and calculated (in exact reasoning process). Alfred North Whitehead remarked that a mathematician has weighed the earth and counted billions of molecules in a drop of water. In fact, no other language has such a degree of freedom, as in mathematics to use words or symbols for any idea one chooses. Precise deductions with these words or symbols lead to the calculation one desires. But let me remind the readers that mathematics in not only the language of calculation. Lots of calculations take place in an ordinary language, too. For example, removing ambiguity from sentences to make their meaning clear also needs calculations.

Some people have found out what mathematics is about, and what power it has. For such people mathematics is the most exciting instrument of human mind. But we can say that most people have not understood this. Education in mathematics, up to now, has not been able to impart this degree of understanding to know what mathematics is about.

The root cause of the trouble in understanding mathematics lies in the introduction to mathematical ideas which we experience as we grow up. The introduction usually begins with arithmetic. In the age where the idea of numbers is introduced, a child may not be able to conceive the idea of 2: which represents two eyes or two hands that we possess. Again the number 3 which is larger than 2 by 1, and any other latter numbers, seem inconceivable for a child unless he/she is matured enough to count. Education in mathematics begins at an age when a person does not know very much, nor is he/she able to know much. Besides, mathematical ideas are introduced not in a systematic manner but in bits and pieces which make little sense to the learners. Moreover, the authoritarian manner of the teacher “do this and this and never mind if you do not understand” would contribute a lot for the general dislike for mathematics at the earliest opportunity. Those who continue the study of mathematics do so because it helps them to secure higher percentage in the tests/examinations and is necessary to study various branches of science and engineering afterwards. The worldwide trend of decline in the number of graduates majoring mathematics confirms that majority of young people shun this field. This is definitely not an encouraging sign at the age of rapid technological developments, and when we are faced with a hoard of problems.

We are actually talking about non-mathematicians. So, as a non-mathematician have you ever reflected: “How much mathematics do I have to know? Can mathematics actually be useful to me?” If you are an intelligent person holding a responsible position, you need to know a host of things like how to read graphs and use tables, apply a few formulas, estimate the values of different items, take samples and make models and diagrams, determine chances, predict the future, and make appropriate decisions. All these are essential daily activities. Graphs and tables summarize a lot of information, and so do other mathematical ideas. These ideas help you to understand real world in much better way than without any mathematical ideas. As an intelligent non-mathematician you can think now how mathematical reasoning would help you and how much effort you have to make for acquiring broad and clear worldview.

Einstein beyond Science

— Hem Raj Kafle

Let every man be respected as an individual and no man idolized.

(Albert Einstein)

Almost every educated human being around the world knows Albert Einstein as a great scientist, with allusion to his path-breaking formula e=mc². But what about his philosophical orientations outside physics and mathematics? This article presents a reading of some of his opinions beyond the scope of fundamental sciences.

A remarkable aspect of Einstein’s idea about science lies in how he defines the identity and role of a scientist in relation with other identities and roles. Unlike most of us who see science in hard work within a specific circle, and worse, in the crafty maneuvering of data through modern gadgets, Einstein takes a scientist for a “real seeker after truth” perhaps identical to a sage in penance and distinguished from “a mere artisan or a specialist.” For him, a scientist’s identity is best characterized by his “knowledge of the historic and philosophical background” of the subject of his pursuit. Thus, a scientist is expected to grow to be a philosopher developing the competent vision as much to internalize and communicate the results of his hard works and to challenge and appreciate existing knowledge, as to signal the avenues for future adventures. The scientist is also a historian for his careful documentation of the erstwhile achievements and failures in a field of knowledge. A physicist, for this reason, has no need to wait till a philosopher does “critical contemplation of the theoretical foundations”; it is his own responsibility to be able to document, assess and disseminate the vital (and sometimes dangerous) aspects of his discoveries because “he himself knows best, and feels more surely where the shoe pinches.”

A large part of Einstein’s discourse on science involves his ideas on the responsibilities of a scientist. His primary emphasis in this direction is on the scientist’s public role, which fundamentally includes critical awareness towards possible misuses of scientific knowledge, especially during violence and war. He explains, “When men are engaged in war and conquest, the tools of science become as dangerous as a razor in the hands of a child. The fate of mankind depends entirely on our sense of morality.” This reflects a general condition of a time during the twentieth century when Einstein, earlier as a member of the League of Nations in the aftermath of World War I, and later as a witness to the nuclear devastations of World War II, advocated the need of a world government, and of disarming warring countries towards ensuring peace and harmony in the world as a whole. So, he foresees the intensity of the dangers of nuclear warfare in forthcoming periods of human history, and stresses the urgency of ethically reorienting scientists and engineers towards general human welfare. He terms such reorientation as “a particularly heavy burden of moral responsibility” rooted in the fact that “the development of military means of mass destruction is dependent on their work.”

Often great people are believed to be associated with a political philosophy. Sometimes they themselves appear to claim a particular association. But mostly, they maintain a universal balance in their lives and works. And, it is common for their public image to come under the scrutiny of the press and general people. Einstein’s involvement in disarmament movement on behalf of the League of Nations during the 1920s gave his relatively neutral, apolitical stance a semblance of political identity. But in his thoughts he reserves himself a nonaligned position. He idealizes democracy as a system to guarantee human rights and dignity. He declares: “My political ideal is democracy.” And he deplores autocracy thus: “An autocratic system of coercion … soon degenerates. For force always attracts men of low morality, and I believe it to be an invariable rule that tyrants of genius are succeeded by scoundrels.”

Of Einstein’s thoughts on universal human identity and co-existence, the notion of cosmic religion appears to be the most representative. In his seminal work “Religion and Science” Einstein defines cosmic religion as “a third stage of religious experience,” which belongs to or represents all other religions, “even though it is rarely found in a pure form… .” For him the first and second stages are “religion of fear” and “moral religion,” in which the images of diverse individual Gods were inherent. He asserts that such diversity stems from the generally perceived plurality of races, locations, rituals and beliefs, and involves the state of obligation to, or rather oppression by, an omnipotent yet inherently emaciated power. It further signifies a general moral dilemma of whether to worship individuality or idolatry.

The notion of cosmic religion transcends any barriers created by multiple religious sects, leaders and preachers. In other words, it foresees the end of divisions, or at least the reduction of their recurrence. There is a rare emergence of a representative, unifying religious leadership from within the existing multiplicity. So, Einstein argues, such emergence as that of Moses or Buddha has been distinguished by cosmic religious feeling, “which knows no dogma and no God conceived in man’s image.” Cosmic awareness both indicates unity in diversity, and shows the absence of diversity. Imbued with cosmic religious orientation, an individual would feel the “futility of human desires and aims,” meaning that cosmic awareness would make individuality appear like moral imprisonment subsequently impelling a person to accept the world as “a single significant whole.” Interestingly, Einstein appears to reflect Rabindranath Tagore’s notion of a world devoid of “narrow domestic walls.” Thus, in faith and pursuit of cosmic religion, Einstein believes, an individual “achieves a far-reaching emancipation from the shackles of personal hopes and desires.”

But does Einstein mean to be an atheist? Alan H. Batten puts that though his ideas reflect some sense of atheism, it is only the “condemnation of anthropomorphic images of God.” Cosmic religion underscores the call for glorifying the concept of godhood and religion as greater and more inclusive than what is generally believed and practiced in everyday life. The cosmic sense — the emphasis on the convergence of individualities into one encompassing principle, the concerns for universal brotherhood and harmony — makes Einstein a true preacher of humanity. This is the aspect many educated people and scientists alike may not know about Albert Einstein. It takes more reading on/of his ideas to realize that the great scientist was much greater and more polysemic than his scientific works.

Works Consulted

Batten, Alan H. “Subtle are Einstein’s thoughts.” 26 Sep. 2005. 3 Oct. 2007<http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/23008>.

Einstein, Albert. Ideas and Opinions. Trans. Walter E. Delhi: Rupa, 2003.

Heckman, Jessica. “Action at a Distance: Einstein as Activist.” Vassar College Libraries, Archives and Special Collections. 3 June 2011 <http://specialcollections.vassar.edu/exhibits/einstein/essay3.html>

Kafle, Hem R.“Cosmic Awareness in Laxmi Prashad Devkota.”Devkota Studies 3.2(2008):27-31.

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.“Albert Einstein, Philosophy of Science.” 11 Feb. 2004. 3 June2011 <http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/einstein-philscience/>

Neither the Second God Nor the Message

— Nirmala Mani Adhikary

Ask someone raised in the religious traditions of the Western world to describe God, and this, with idiosyncratic variations, might be the answer:

“God is all-knowing, and all powerful. He is a spirit, not a body, and He exists both outside us and within us. God is always with us, because He is everywhere. We can never fully understand Him, because He works in mysterious ways.”In broad terms, this describes the God of our fathers, but it also describes the electronic media, the second god, which man has created.

Tony Schwartz (Media: The Second God, 1983, p. 1)

We live in mediated world. Mass media play a significant role in present society. However, understanding this significant entity is not easy. The term “mass media” encompasses a countless array of institutions and individuals who differ in purpose, scope, method, and cultural context. It may refer to the people, the policies, the organizations, and the technology that go into producing mass communication. Sometimes, the term is used just to mean various artifactual and/or mechanical means, such as books, newspapers, magazines, radio, television, film and the Internet, emphasizing the single components of the mass media. Often, the term refers to the media industry, also called the content industry. Mass media in general have complex relationship with various aspects of society such as cultures, ideologies, political systems, economic systems, technologies available, and so on

Controversies exist in the field of mass communication and media studies as in many other areas of academic fields/disciplines. There are differing ideas among scholars about understanding communication, its process and medium. Mediated communication is not an exception. Over the years, different theories have risen and then faded into the background and other theories and methods of studying mass communication have gained attention. Some theorists even argue that the mass media actually are declining and heading towards their demise. But other theorists argue that, despite the changing technology, the phenomenon persists within the whole institutional framework.

Marshall McLuhan (1911-1980), the “archpriest” of media analysis, argues that medium is the message. “What is most important are the media people watch or listen to, not the programs or texts carried by the media”, he opines. And, Tony Schwartz terms electronic media as “the second god.” However, this is to note that electronic media are experienced differently in societies with ‘non-Western’ characteristics. The dissimilarities are not just a matter of difference in economic development, since profound differences of culture and long historical occurrence are involved. The study of mass communication media cannot avoid dealing with questions of world-views and values and norms.

In one of the traditional thoughts in Hinduism, communication is the sharing among/ between sahridayas. Communication according to this concept is a relationship based on common and mutual understanding and feeling, for sahridaya literally means ‘of one heart’. Here, communication is for communion. Thus, communication is an inward search for meaning, a process leading to self-awareness, then to freedom, and finally to truth. The intra-personal dimension is of greater importance than the interpersonal (and other forms like mass communication) in the Vedic Hindu approach.

According to the orthodox Hindu belief, the body is only a temporary abode of atman, and it is an instrument for the attainment of moksha. The bodily self is not the ultimate truth though it is essential for the worldly existence. In fact, all worldly things are considered ephemeral, and the mundane world is just a transition on the way to the spiritual one. Understandably, medium or channel could be a constituent of a process of attaining mutual understanding, commonness or oneness among people: no more, no less.

When the place of medium or channel is considered in the light of Hindu world-view, it is a means, not the end. Certainly, the channel/medium is vital, but not more than the humans and the messages involved in the communication process and the ‘communication goal’ itself. Thus, the notions – medium as the message and media as the second god – do not seem in consonance to Hindu world-view. However, they may influence human conditions, and may even force to bring changes into human environments.

Present day mediated world is indeed a two-edged sword. Media are setting up new exchange systems, completely changing the conditions governing the transmission of knowledge, opening up a whole range of possibilities for making formal and non-formal education generally available, bringing culture to the people at large, and promoting knowledge and know-how. They are creating conditions that allow constant individual enrichment and enable the people of all nations to take part in their own advancement and to broaden their outlooks. At the same time, the ‘disembodiment’ or ‘de-personalization’ that McLuhan warned about just a few decades ago has, seemingly, become widespread. Some say that media have made us more violent and weakened our moral character. However, this issue needs more extended discourse than is intended here.

In brief, the mass media have both positive and negative dimensions. If we consider media as the second god or the message itself, we cannot be intelligent consumers of media. Rather, such notion promotes the idea of passive, tame and helpless receiver once claimed by the hypodermic needle theorists. But, the situation alters when we understand mass media just a means for our ‘communication goals’. The sadharanikaran model of communication (SMC), which underscores the notion of sahridayata as fundamental to profound understanding and warm co-existence among people, can substantially contribute in this regard.

For more discussion on the SMC, please visit:

http://sadharanikaran.com/

http://sadharanikarantheory.blogspot.com/