छ लेनको सडक: बोकाको मुखमा कुभिन्डो

– मुकुन्दप्रसाद उपाध्याय

हाम्रो भाषा–साहित्यलाई निश्चित उचाइ प्रदान गर्ने एउटा कडी उखान–टुक्का पनि हो । हाम्रो शब्दभण्डारमा उखान–टुक्काहरू पर्याप्त मात्रामा छताछुल्ल भएर बसेका छन् । ती अथाह उखान–टुक्काको सागरभित्रको एउटा गागर हो ‘बोकाको मुखमा कुभिन्डो’ । हाम्रो जीवनको हरेक क्षेत्रमा यो उखान निकै सान्दर्भिक मानिन्छ । यस उखानको तात्पर्य हो कसैलाई हैसियतभन्दा बढी प्राप्त हुनु र त्यसलाई सम्हाल्न नसक्नु ।

हाम्रो देशका लागि देशको पहिलो छ लेनको चिल्लो सडक पनि झन्डै–झन्डै ‘बोकाको मुखमा कुभिन्डो’ प्रतीत हुँदो छ । विश्वमानचित्रमा हामीसँगै स्वतन्त्र भएका राष्ट्रहरूले दस–बाह्र लेनका चिल्ला सडक र फ्लाइओभरहरू बनाउन थालेको यो एक्काइसौँ शताब्दीमा बल्लतल्ल जापान सरकारले निगाह गरेकाले हामीले कोटेश्वरदेखि सूर्यविनायकसम्मको १२ किलोमिटरसम्म छ लेन (चार जोड दुई) को सडकमा गुड्ने सौभाग्य पाएका छौँ । राणाकालीन जुद्धशमशेरको पालामा बनेको सडकलाई आजपर्यन्त ‘नयाँ सडक’ भनिरहने हामी नेपालीका लागि यो छ लेनको सडक ठूलो उपलब्धि नै थियो । आधा घन्टाको बाटोलाई १२ मिनेटमा छिचोल्न सकिन्थ्यो । तर हाम्रो सोच, शैली र सरकारी बकम्फुसे नियमका कारण त्यो सडक ‘बोकाको मुखमा कुभिन्डो’ हुँदैछ । एकातिर हाम्रा सवारी–चालकहरू लेन–ड्राइभिङमा अभ्यस्त भइसकेका छैनन्, जतातिरबाट पनि ओभरटेक गर्ने गर्छन् । अति धीमा गतिमा चल्ने सवारी–साधनले कुन लेन लिने र तेज रफ्तारमा चल्ने सवारी–साधनले कुन लेन लिने, थाहा छैन । लेनमा हुनुपर्ने रफ्तार र पछिबाट पछ्याउने सवारी–साधनको वास्तै नगरी पेसेन्जर उठाउने लोकलबसहरू, नियम नलाग्ने च्याउसरहका मोटरसाइकलहरू र हाइवेमा चलाउन नपाइने साइडलाइट र ब्रेकलाइट नभएका ट्रेलरयुक्त ट्रेक्टर र पावरट्रेृलरहरू छ लेनको सडकमा निर्बाध चलाउने बानीलाई सुधार गर्नुपर्ने खाँचो र समस्याबीच सरकारले नै नयाँ समस्या खडा गरिदिएको छ । त्यो हो त्यति राम्रो सडकमा ६० किलोमिटर प्रतिघन्टाभन्दा बढी रफ्तारमा सवारी साधन चलाउन नपाइने, चलाएमा लाइसेन्स प्वाल पार्न बग्गीखाना जानुपर्ने नयाँ हास्यास्पद ट्राफिक नियम । त्यति राम्रो चिल्लो सडकमा विदेशमा झैँ न्यूनतम गति ६० किलोमिटर प्रतिघन्टा हुनुपर्नेमा त्यसैलाई अधिकतम सीमा बनाइएको छ । यो अनौठो, हास्यास्पद र लज्जास्पद बुद्धि हाम्रा नीतिनिर्माताहरूले कहाँबाट सापटी लिएका होलान् ?

नेपालमा सरकारले यस्तो नियम बनाउने कुरा थाहा पाएको हुँदो हो त  सायदै जापान सरकारले छ लेनको बाटो बनाइदिन्थ्यो होला । चीन सरकारले ठूलो सदासयता देखाएर नेपाल सरकारलाई उपहार दिएको ट्रलीबस, भृकुटी कागज कारखाना, बाँसबारी छाला तथा जुत्ता कारखाना र हरिसिद्धि इँटाटायल कारखानालाई विगतमा हामीले ‘बोकाको मुखमा कुभिन्डो’ बनाइसकेका थियौँ । सायद त्यही नियति भोग्नुपर्ने होला बिचरा छ लेन सडकले ।

हाम्रो ट्राफिक नियम पनि बडो बिचित्रको छ । रिङरोडको भीडमा अनि सूर्यविनायकबाट साँगातिर हुइँकिँदाचाहिँ गतिको सीमा छैन । त्यहाँ प्रतिघन्टा ७०, ८०, ९० किलोमिटरमा पनि गुडाउन पाइने, तर सजिलो बाटोमा चाहिँ ६० किलोमिटरभन्दा कममा हाँक्नुपर्ने रे ! छ लेनको त्यति राम्रो चिल्लो सडकमा पनि ६० किलोमिटरभन्दा बढी गतिमा हाँक्न नपाइने नियम लागू गर्ने हो भने पहिले सरकारले पाँचवटा गियर भएको हलुका सवारी–साधनको आयातमा नै प्रतिबन्ध लगाउनुपर्ने हुन्छ । किनभने त्यस सडकमा कसैले ५ नम्बर गियरमा ६० किलोमिटरभन्दा कम गतिमा सवारी–साधन गुडाएर देखाइदिनुपर्थ्यो । त्यो १० किलोमिटरमा गुड्ने करिब ८०–९० गतिमा हाँकिने हलुका सवारी हजारौँ गाडीहरूले बाध्यतावश कम रफ्तारमा सवारी साधन चलाउँदा निश्चित रूपले इन्धनको खपतमा वृद्धि हुने हुन्छ । यसबाट इन्डियन आयल कर्पोरेसनलाई नै फाइदा हुने हो ! हाम्रो देशले जेजस्तो नियम बनाए पनि अन्ततोगत्वा छिमेकी मित्रराष्ट्रलाई नै फाइदा हुने नियम बनाउनुपर्ने बाध्यता हाम्रो नियत हो वा नियति ? भगवान् जानून् !

छ लेनको नमुना त्यस सडकमा गतिको सीमितताको नियम मोटरसाइकललाई मात्र लगाइएको भए तैबिसेक हुन्थ्यो, तर एकमुस्ट सबै सवारी–साधनका लागि लगाउँदा विचार गर्नुपर्ने थियो । त्यस सडकमा अर्को थप गल्ती हुन लागिरहेको छ । त्यो हो सडकको बीचबीचमा निर्माण भइरहेको पैदलयात्रुका लागि बन्ने फ्लाइओभर हेड ब्रिजको उचाइ । ती पुलहरूको उचाइ पर्याप्त छैन । हामीले हेक्का राख्नुपर्ने कुरा के हो भने छ लेनको सडक सहरभित्रको सडक होइन । रिङरोडभित्रको सडक नभएर त्यो हाइवेको एक खण्ड हो । माथिल्लो तामाकोसी जस्ता ठूलाठूला जलविद्युत आयोजनाहरूको निर्माण हुन बाँकी नै छ । त्यस्ता आयोजनाहरू निर्माण गर्दा वा ठूला उद्योगहरू स्थापना गर्दा ठूलाठूला यन्त्र–उपकरणहरूको ढुवानी गर्नुपर्ने हुन्छ । त्यस्ता हेभी इक्विपमेन्ट ढुवानी गर्नुपर्दा के ती कम उचाइका ओभरहेड ब्रिजहरू भत्काउने ? यो अदूरदर्शी निर्णय गर्नेहरूको घैँटोमा कहिल्यै घाम नलाग्ने नै हो त ?

यो दुर्लभ नूतन सडकमा बनाइएको ट्राफिक लाइट नमिल्नु अर्थात् पहेंलो बत्तीको अवधि ज्यादै कम समयको हुनु आदिलाई त सामान्य त्रुटि नै मान्नुपर्ने हुन्छ । ६० किलोमिटरभन्दा कममा हाँक्नुपर्ने त्यस सडकमा अन्य जीवजन्तुहरू कुकुर, बस्तुभाउ आदिलाई भने कुनै ट्राफिक नियम लाग्दैन । ती जीवजन्तुहरूको सौभाग्य नै भन्नुपर्छ भर्खर–भर्खर आफ्ना गाउँहरूलाई खुला दिसामुक्त क्षेत्र घोषणा गर्नमा गर्व गर्ने हाम्रो देशका ती जीवहरू अझै नियममुक्त प्राणीका रूपमा निर्बाध विचरण गर्न पाएका छन् । कुकुरहरूले पर्दामुक्त क्रीडा आदि गर्न पाएकै छन् । गाउँहरूलाई दिसामुक्त क्षेत्र घोषणा गर्न तल्लीन एनजीओ र सरकारलाई के सुझाव दिन चाहन्छु भने कमसेकम गहनाजस्तो चिल्लो त्यो छ लेनको सडकलाई गोबरमुक्त सडक भनेर घोषणा गर्न सके हुन्थ्यो । नत्र त्यो छ लेनको सडक पनि हाम्रा लागि ‘बोकाको मुखमा कुभिन्डो’ नै हुन के बेर !

When Reetu Returns

– Kashiraj Pandey 
“There is a new face in the village.”
 The headman is informed by one of the village women.
“Yeah, he must be a tourist who might want to stay here for a couple of nights and might leave.” Says Jimuwal, the headman.
“Jimuwaal Baa, Jimuwaal Baa
Shouts another Youngman from the distance – a clear voice some two kilometers away, very audible, very familiar.
“Oh, Hello? Who is that?” replies the headman.
“This is Ramesh, Jimuwaal Baa. I just wanted to make sure you are home.” As he adds, “I am coming to you with guests, a couple from Amrika.”
“Oh yes, come on by”, says Jimuwaal Baa.
“Namaste Jimuwaal Baa”
Ramesh greets the headman and both the Amrikans also exchange greetings with him.
“I heard about you.” Says Jimuwal Baa.
 There had come a woman that morning who had told him that she had noticed a new person in the village.
“Where have you come from?”—
“England, do you know?” The couple spoke in unison.
“Oh yes, yes, Amrika”, replied the headman.
“Amrikans come and visit our village. Some years ago, many Amrikans would come and stay here almost every day, but for the last couple of years I have not noticed any. Amrikans favor this village very much. You see, tourists can see the mountains from here so clearly. They give money, stationery and sweets to our children. Last year, one Amrikan even brought books, a bagful of books, from London where she came from. She worked in our village primary school for a month. She lived in that shed, down there, above the cow shed. Downstairs we keep cows and upstairs a room to live. We have even constructed a toilet for that Amrikan. She was so shy to go to the toilet in public, or even in an open space. And, she was the one who persuaded us to construct more toilets in our village. Now, each household has at least one toilet in the village. So, we value Amrikans very much.”
“Ramesh, what a beautiful scene, especially when the first rays of sunlight reach the mountain peak; so vibrant, so enchanting”, observes Mike, the male tourist.
“Yeah, beautiful for you but our people do not have time to regard the beauty of nature like this. Their days come and go routinely. They are more worried about earning their bread, even without butter! They take nature for granted, expecting it to readily support their needs. Tourists view it as an opportunity of a lifetime to experience the ecstasy and the bliss of nature; they feel as if they are in heaven whenever or however they visit this place.”
 Mike interrupts, “Ramesh, Look! What a nice baby goat, we never see them in our country. Right, Isabelle?”
Isabelle smiles and says, “Yeah- amazing! How lovely are these goats, buffaloes, and the vegetables in the kitchen garden, so lively, so fresh.”
Visiting the remote village as a tourist was nostalgic; totally lost was Isabelle, now a young woman. They had just arrived the previous week, had been in Kathmandu for three days, taken a mountain flight, and come directly to the village.
For a long time she had carefully kept her identity card with an old photograph glued to it. She now removed it from her purse. The card read, “Reetu Nepal, Grade Two, Roll no. one.” The name of the school- Shree Pancha Kumari Primary School, Dhading, formed the background.
Isabelle showed the card to Ramesh. Ramesh, a guide belonging to a trekking company had not realized the tourists’ motive in visiting the village. Ramesh too had attended Pancha Kumari School. He studied and took his SLC at the same school, some nine or ten years ago and knew everything about it.
Ramesh, who had never met his parents, had left the village on passing his SLC. It was also his first visit to this place since he had left. Although he lost his parents at an early age, the people in the village remembered how they loved and cared Ramesh over all those years. Ramesh also remembers his people telling him the story of his parents who had died right after he was born, one after the other, within a year’s time. The villagers a long time ago had also told him about his sister who was ten years older than him. That’s all he knew about his family. He is so indebted to the villagers for they all were compassionate to him which was more of an incentive to return than the orders his company had given.
Ramesh, looking at the card more seriously, reads aloud—Reetu Nepal, a card of a student who went to Pancha Kumari school years back in history for him. The date read as “Expiry: 1981 January 14”, 21 years ago from February 20, 2005 – the present date. Ramesh, also with his family name “Nepal”, recalls the story of the girl Reetu, doubting whether this Reetu was his own sister who he remembers the villagers telling him of who was sent to the city after their parents died.
An old woman from the village appeared and he showed her the picture. Sitting next to the tourists, “Aren’t you Ramesh, how can I forget you my love?” the old woman says, “oh, yeah! This picture – I remember.”
“Baboo! This seems like your sister, Reetu. She was both a brilliant and beautiful girl. We could not keep her with us. Some twenty to twenty two years ago, before you were born, there lived a fine family of three; a young couple with a daughter. They were your father, mother, and sister, Reetu. After your birth the couple died. Your father had a serious disease, HIV, which he caught from Bombay, the colorful city of India where he had gone to work for some years. And your mother followed the same fate. The man died almost five or six months before the woman, and before you were born. After the man’s death, the woman, who was also pregnant, gave birth to a boy. That’s you, Ramesh. She died some two months after your arrival.”
“ Reetu, your sister”—looking at the picture the old lady unravels, “so cute but little mischievous, I still remember had a hard time to live a life here in the village so we sent her to the city with Kainla, who had a mason’s job in Kathmandu. Kainla later told us that a kind gentleman took Reetu to a charity that accepted orphans for foreigners to adopt. A year later, when my husband went to Kathmandu, I asked him to find her and bring her back to the village, to our home if she wished. He said he could not trace her, a story from some 20 years ago. Who gave you this card, Ramesh?”
Ramesh replied, “The Amrikans.” This young couple have come from London to see our village. The company I work for asked me if I could be their guide. I accepted the deal and I am with them. The card belongs to this lady. The old woman looking at Isabelle, was puzzled for some time and tells Ramesh in Nepali to ask the young lady how she got that card. Ramesh, translating repeats, “Where did you get the card from?”
“This is my card. My own card”, Isabelle replies. “This is all I have since I was taken away from my birthplace, nothing more, and nothing I remember more than this except some shallow images of the hills, the mountains, and the clearing nearby. I was given everything; a new name, food, shelter, and support. I have been treasuring this card as though it were a part of my body and the same card has brought me back to this village now.

ट्रकबस साहित्य र इ–साहित्य

– मुकुन्दप्रसाद उपाध्याय

नेपाली साहित्यभित्र मौलाएका अनेक विधाहरूमा काव्यविधा साहित्यको प्राणका रूपमा रहेको छ। यो प्राणको उपप्राणका रूपमा काव्यभित्र गीत, गजल, मुक्तक, सायरी, हाइकु आदि विधाहरू पनि झाङ्गिएका छन्। यी नेपाली वाङ्मयका उपप्राणरूपी विधाहरूको सँगालो — क्वाँटीका रूपमा अर्को एउटा विधा पनि मौलाएकै मान्नुपर्छ, त्यो हो ट्रकबस साहित्य। नेपाल (र भारतमा पनि) का राजमार्गमा गुड्ने प्रायः सबै ट्रकबसको पछाडि दुई साइडलाइटको बीचको भाग यस्तै काव्यसिर्जनाहरूले भरिएको पाइन्छ। त्यहाँ हिन्दी, नेपाली, मैथिली र नेवारी भाषामा सायरी, मुक्तक, हाइकु आदि पढ्न पाइन्छ र कतिपय सिर्जना नितान्त मौलिकसमेत रहेको प्रतीत हुन्छ। तर दुर्भाग्य, त्यस्ता मौलिक सिर्जनाको स्रष्टा भने अज्ञात हुन्छ। उसको नाम–ठेगाना इतिहासको बहावमा विस्मृत छाल बराबर तुहिने क्रम जारी छ।

केही दिनअघि साँझपख भक्तपुरबाट धुलिखेल फर्कने क्रममा साँगाको उकालोमा अगाडिको ट्रकको गति कम हुँदा दुइटा ट्रकको पछाडिको लेखन पढ्ने सौभाग्य प्राप्त भयो। त्यसमध्ये एउटा थियो —

न आमाको माया, न बाबुको प्यार

ड्राइभरको जिन्दगी बेकार छ यार

त्यस्तै अर्को थियो —

भोकले भन्दैन चामलको भात

प्रेमले भन्दैन कहिल्यै जातभात

अनि निद्राले भन्दैन मसानघाट

यी दुई सिर्जना समसामयिक, मार्मिक र सुन्दर छन्। तर यसको अँध्यारो पक्षचाहिँ के हो भने यिनको मौलिक रचनाकारचाहिँ अज्ञात छ। त्यो पढेर मैले गम खाएँ अनि गम्न थालेँ — म त कुनै कवि होइन, न मूद्र्धन्य स्रष्टा नै। मेरो ठाउँमा देशका प्रतिष्ठित कवि कोही हुँदो हो त उसको मनमा कस्ता वैचारिक तरङ्गहरू उठ्थे होलान् ? यो सिर्जनाले उसलाई के प्रेरणा मिल्थ्यो होला ? कुनै आसुकवि भएको भए यी दुई सिर्जनाले थप नयाँ रचना स्फुरित हुन्थ्यो होला। आदिकवि भानुभक्तले आफ्नो जीवनमा बसट्रक देख्न पाएनन्। त्यसैले उनले प्रेरणा लिनुप¥यो घाँसीबाट। वर्तमानका कुनै नवागन्तुक मेरो ठाउँमा हुन् त उनले कस्तो कविता कोर्थे होलान् त ? सायद उनी लेख्थे होलान् —

भरजन्म स्टेयरिङ र ब्रेकमा ध्यान दिएर केही सीप कमायो

सिर्जनात्मक काम केही गरूँ भनेर ट्रकमा कविता बनायो

यातायात मजदुर त हो तर सिर्जना कस्तो ?

म स्थापित स्रष्टा भएर पनि आज यस्तो

मलाई लाग्यो अचेल दुई–चार शब्द खेलाउनासाथ नवोदित स्रष्टालाई गाउँ, टोल र जिल्लाहरूमा स्रष्टाको पगरी गुथाएर सम्मान गर्ने, दोसल्ला ओढाइदिने नवीन संस्कृति मौलाएको छ। यस्तो वर्तमान परिवेशमा ट्रकबसका पछाडि कोरिएका यस्ता रचनाहरूका स्रष्टालाई खोजी–खोजी तिनलाई पनि सम्मान गर्नुपर्ने होइन त ? यस दिशामा नेपाल प्रज्ञाप्रतिष्ठानलगायत अन्य साहित्यिक प्रतिष्ठानहरूको ध्यान जानुपर्ने होइन र ?

नेपाली साहित्यको इतिहासमा स्थापित भइसकेको यो बसट्रक साहित्यिक विधालाई अझ व्यवस्थित गर्नुपर्ने साहित्यानुरागीहरूको आग्रह अस्वाभाविक होइन। यसका साथै अब साहित्यिक प्रतिष्ठानहरूले अर्को नवीन विधातिर पनि ध्यान दिनुपर्ने बेला भइसकेको छ। त्यो हो इ–साहित्य। वर्तमान युग सूचना–प्रविधिको युग हो। इ–कमर्स, इ–बिजनेस, इ–बैङ्किङ आदि स्थापित भइसकेका छन्। हरेक युवायुवतीका हातहातमा मोबाइल, आइफोन, ल्यापटप, पामटप, आइप्याड आउन थालेको छ। फेसबुक, ट्विटर, ब्लग आदिमा नवीन विचार, नवीन दर्शन र नवीन रचनाहरू आउन थालिसकेका छन्। फेसबुक र ब्लगमा अभिव्यक्त समसामयिक विचारहरू पनि नूतन सामग्रीका रूपमा स्थापित हुने नै छन्। गत वर्ष अर्थसचिव रामेश्वर खनालले गलत राजनीतिक संस्कृति र दलीय हस्तक्षेपका कारण पदबाट राजिनामा दिएपछि फेसबुकमा लेख्नुभएका धारणाहरू अब्बल साहित्यका खुराकहरू थिए भने भारतमा हालसालै सिनेकलाकार राजेश खन्नाको निधन र शत्रुघ्न सिन्हाको सघन उपचारपछि अभिनेता अमिताभ बच्चनले आफ्नो ब्लगमा लेखेका विचारहरू गहन मर्मस्पर्शी र चिन्तनहरू हुन्। यिनीहरूजस्तै चिन्तनको सँगालो नै हो साहित्य भनेको।

नेपाली वाङ्मयको क्षितिजमा इ–साहित्य विधाले जोडदार दस्तक दिइरहेको छ। हामीले आफ्नो कान थुनेर वा आँखा चिम्लेर बस्न सक्ने अवस्था छैन। अब हाम्रा साहित्यसम्बन्धी राष्ट्रिय प्रतिष्ठानहरूले, त्रिभुवन विश्वविद्यालयको केन्द्रीय नेपाली विभागले, मदन पुस्तकालय आदिले समयमै यतातिर पनि ध्यान दिनुपर्ने बेला भइसकेको छ जस्तो लाग्छ। फेसबुक, ब्लग आदिको उपयोग गर्ने क्रममा राज्यले पनि त्यससम्बन्धी कानुनहरू ल्याएर त्यसलाई व्यवस्थित गर्दै लगेन भनेचाहिँ उच्छृङ्खलता र अश्लीलतातिर उन्मुख हुँदै जानेछ अनि हठात् राज्यले यस्ता प्रविधिहरूमाथि नै प्रतिबन्ध लगाउनुपर्ने आवाजहरू उठ्न थाल्नेछन्। यसबारे सचेत नागरिकहरूबाट समयमै सचेतताको अपेक्षा गर्न सकिन्छ।

Editorial

KUFIT sustains the commitment to continue though our appearance of late has been intermittent. This is one of the several good things we do and aspire to do in the University. So, our delay is reasonable.We promise not to fail. And we will keep on asking you to contribute by writing, by reading and by letting your own circle of friends know that we have this small platform.

We heartily thank our regular contributors. They have kept their promises despite having the same extent of engagement as we. They have helped us keep the zeal for keeping the forum alive. They have helped make it more professional and interdisciplinary by providing us diversity of themes and subjects.

We present KUFIT in a new template and platform. The previous site reportedly failed to open in certain places, and that some antiviruses blocked it. We hope the present site is more accessible. We hope it serves the purpose of intellectual engagements.

We expect your feedback.

In this issue:

1. The Omnipresent Force by Pushpa Raj Adhikary

2. सोमरस भनेको मदिरा नै हो त? by Mukunda Upadhyaya

3. Open and Distance Learning in Nepal... by Khagendra Acharya

4. अन्तरिक्ष-विज्ञान सम्बन्धमा केही चर्चा by Nirmala Mani Adhikary

5. Breathtaking Beijing by Kashiraj Pandey

6. On Identity by Hem Raj Kafle

The Omnipresent Force

– Pushpa Raj Adhikary

We call the pull of the earth on the bodies the force of gravity. The measure of this pull is called the weight of the body. There is no escape from the gravity and its eternal laws are valid even in the remotest parts of the universe. It equally pervades vacuum and the densest substance. There is no way of shielding from it or acting on it. Its action is less and less when we move away from earth but does not vanish completely. Gravity makes rivers flow down to the sea, keeps the atmosphere around the earth, and is the cause of tides in the oceans. We have to use force to overcome gravity if we want to move away from the earth.

Since time immemorial, living beings had to reckon with gravity, and learned to adapt to it. The force of gravity, which makes everything move towards it, was unexplained for ages. The first man to develop a scientific theory of gravity and apply it to study of the universe was the great Englishman, Sir Isaac Newton.

The anecdote that Newton discovered the law of gravity by watching an apple fall from a tree may or may not be true. It has been said that he invented this story to get rid of people demanding explanation of just how he discovered the great law. Today, any high school student knows this law with such an ease that it seems strange indeed that there was a time when learned men had not the slightest idea about it. However, it is not as it may appear to us and it took the genius of Newton to discover it.

Newton’s studies convinced him that not only earth attracts an apple but an apple also attracts the earth. In fact, every material body attracts other material bodies towards it. But then why the apple moves towards the earth but not the earth towards the apple? This attraction or pull or force exists between the earth and all heavenly bodies too. This is known as the force of gravitation.Any material object attracts all other material objects and this attraction is in proportion to the weight of an object. The heavier a body, the stronger is the attraction. The weight of the earth is enormous compared to the weight of an apple or a man. Hence, the attraction exerted by the earth on other objects is also very strong compared to the attraction of an apple on earth or by a man on earth. This attraction of the earth makes every body move towards earth. The attraction between two material bodies increases if they come closer or if their weights are increased.

About seventy years before Newton’s time, the great German Scientist Johannes Kepler discovered the law as how planets moved around the sun. But in Kepler’s time nobody knew why the planets moved as explained by him. Newton, with the help of the law of universal gravitation, could explain why the planets moved around the sun as explained by Kepler. The universal law of gravitation found another brilliant confirmation in the discovery of the planet Neptune. Astronomers had long discovered that the planet Uranus occasionally appeared to stray from its orbit. Sometimes it would slow down its motion and again it would go faster as if drawn by some invisible force. The law of gravitation predicted that the anomaly in the motion of Uranus was due to the presence of another planet farther from Uranus and soon astronomers discovered a new planet Neptune.

For many decades Newton’s theory of Gravitation appeared perfect. But then facts began to accumulate which could not be explained by the law of universal gravitation alone. One of these is the Seeliger paradox. This paradox goes this way. The universe is infinite and is infinitely variable. Its lifetime too, is unlimited. It is more or less filled with material bodies and so can be assumed to possess some mean density of matter. Seelinger decided to apply the universal law of gravitation to determine the gravitational force which an infinite universe would exert at any point within it. This force was found proportional to the radius of the universe. As the radius of the universe is infinite, so the force would be. But this is not the case. Does it mean that the law of Universal gravitation is not valid on universal scale?

Another phenomenon in which the conclusions of gravitational theory did not quite agree with observations was found in the displacement of the orbit if the planet Mercury. Very accurate calculations of the orbit of Mercury reveal that the point closer to the sun suffers a precession or displacement. For a long time this precession of the orbits of Mercury remained unexplained. It took a revolution in science to explain it, and the revolution was carried out by a young German Scientist, Albert Einstein.

It is a long known fact that if a gun fires at a distance we see the flash of light some time before we hear the sound. This tells us that sound travels in a far less speed that the light. It was possible to measure the speed of sound in the surface of the earth as 330 meters per second. But it is much harder to measure the speed of light because light travels with an incredible speed of 3,00000 kilometers per second. A ray of light can circle the earth in just over 0.1 second i.e. one tenth of a second. For a long time people were unable to measure the speed of light. It was finally measured by observing the eclipses of the satellites of the planet Jupiter from two points on earth’s orbit around the sun, when the earth was closed and farther from Jupiter. Today it is measured in laboratory conditions to a high degree of precession by means of rotating mirrors. In fact, not only light but all electromagnetic waves travel with light’s speed as the electromagnetic field moves through space.

But how do electromagnetic fields propagate through space? Does gravitational force also propagate through space in the form of gravitational field? If so, how fast does a gravitational field travel? As fast as sound in air, light in vacuum or with some other speed? Can the attraction between the bodies happen directly without the participation of the intervening medium? Do the gravitational force and gravitational field also propagate with the same speed of light or have a finite velocity? A new scientific theory was needed to explain the propagation of electromagnetic field through space and its foundation was laid in 1905-1915 by Albert Einstein in his special and general theories of relativity based on the geometries of Lobachevski and Riemann.

One of the fundamental conclusions of the special theory of relativity, which defines the interconnection between space and time, is the equivalence of mass and energy. The theory states that a moving body carries kinetic energy, hence its mass is greater than when it is at rest. The greater a body’s latent energy is, the greater is its mass. A cup of hot coffee is heavier than cold coffee in the same cup. The famous equation E=mc2 is Einstein’s formula of mass-energy equivalence.

But what is meant by a body’s mass? The mechanical concept of mass states that mass is a measure of a body’s inertia. Hence, mass can be expressed in terms of force and the acceleration which it imparts to the body. In physics, mass measured in this way is known as inertial mass. But mass can also be measured from Newton’s formula of gravitation. This mass of bodies which may be at rest relative to one another is known as gravitational mass. The physical interpretation of inertial and gravitational mass are different but quantitatively have, to date, been found to be the same no matter how they are measured. This led Einstein to think that inertia and gravitation must have a common origin. So, if a body’s inertial mass varies with the velocity of motion, then, he reasoned, the gravitational mass should also vary with the velocity of motion.

Einstein’s identification of inertia and gravity on the basis of the equality of inertial and gravitational mass of great significance. It enabled him, in 1915, to develop the general theory of relativity, which is the modern theory of gravitation. This modern theory offers a much more exact and profound explanation of the properties of the bodies than Newton’s theory. Einstein’s theory was a revolution in physics which provided explanation for many hitherto unexplained phenomena. But it would hardly be useful to present the theory in common language as it contains largely mathematical, extremely complicated equations belonging to the class of non-linear differential equations in spite of the clarity of its physical meaning.

सोमरस भनेको मदिरा नै हो त ?

– मुकुन्दप्रसाद उपाध्याय

मदिरापान एक्काइसौँ शताब्दीमा हरेक सम्भ्रान्त परिवारको संस्कृति बनिसकेको छ। मदिरापान गर्ने वर्गहरू आफूलाई सभ्य र सुसंस्कृत बताउँछन्। तर मदिरापान कुलीन वर्गको मात्र वर्गीय पहिचान होइन। सर्वहारादेखि सर्वमारासम्मको हरेक वर्गमा यो व्याप्त छ। वास्तवमा यो नसा हो, व्यसन हो। निम्नवर्गले निम्नकोटिको मदिरा सेवन गर्छन् त कुलीन या उच्चवर्गले उच्चकोटिको। फरक त्यत्ति हो। मेडिकल साइन्सले मदिरापान स्वास्थ्यका लागि हानिकारक प्रमाणित गरिसकेको छ।

हाम्रो समाजमा ब्राह्मणजाति बुज्रुक, अग्रज अनि चतुर र छट्टु जाति मानिन्छ। मदिरापानको कुलतमा फसेका यस जातिका विद्वान्हरू आफ्नो ज्ञान र विद्वत्ताको दुरुपयोग गर्दै ‘मदिरापान हाम्रो वैदिक संस्कृति हो, स्वर्गका देवताहरू पनि सोमरस पान गर्ने गर्थे’ भन्दै आफ्नो लतलाई उच्चता प्रदान गर्न उद्यत देखिन्छन्। के देवताहरूको प्रिय वस्तु, देवताहरूले पान गर्ने, वैदिक यज्ञमा चढाइने सोमरस पनि साँच्चिकै नसालु पेयपदार्थ नै थियो त ? यस लेखमा यसैको परिचर्चा गर्न खोजिएको छ।

हिन्दूधर्मलाई सनातनधर्म भनिन्छ। किनकि यो वेदविहित धर्म हो, अनि वेद अनादि, सनातन र अपौरुषेय हो। त्यसैले अचेल हाम्रो हिन्दूधर्मलाई सनातन वैदिक धर्म भनेर परिभाषित गर्ने गरिन्छ। वेद अनादि र अपौरुषेय भनेर जान्दाजान्दै पनि हाम्रा केही आध्यात्मिक चिन्तक, इतिहासकार र संस्कृतिविद्हरू वेदरचनाको कालखण्ड पहिल्याउनमा तल्लीन छन्। तिनको बुद्धिविलासका अनुसार तिनीहरूले ‘ऋग्वेद’ को रचनाकाल आजभन्दा ५ हजार वर्षदेखि ६ हजार वर्षका बीचमा रहेको अनुमान लगाएका छन्। ‘ऋग्वेद’ मा प्रमुख देवताका रूपमा इन्द्रको उपासना र स्तुति गरिएको छ। इन्द्रपछिका अन्य प्रमुख देवताहरूमा सूर्य, अग्नि, वरुण, वायु, मरुत्, अश्विनिकुमार, सोम, मित्र, विश्वदेव, ऋभु, वृहस्पति आदि छन्। यी सबै देवताहरूले सोमरस पान गर्ने गरेको कुरा ‘ऋग्वेद’ मा सयौँपटक आउँछ। ‘ऋग्वेद’ मा इन्द्रलाई सोमपान गर्नेहरूमध्ये धेरै सोमपान गर्ने देवताका रूपमा वर्णन गरिएको पाइन्छ। इन्द्रलाई देवताहरूका राजा, भोगविलासमा रमण गर्ने, सुरासुन्दरीप्रति आसक्त, इन्द्रियासक्त विषयी देवताका रूपमा पुराणहरूले समेत स्वीकारेका हुँदा ‘ऋग्वेद’ मा वर्णित इन्द्रले पान गर्ने, इन्द्रलाई मन पर्ने पेयपदार्थ सोमरसलाई मदिरा बताउनेहरूको तर्कलाई पनि ठाडै नकार्न सक्ने ठाउँ छैन।

तर यो शास्त्रको सतही बुझाइ र आफ्नो रुचिअनुसारको विश्लेषण हो जस्तो लाग्छ। मदिरालाई चलनचल्तीको भाषामा रक्सी भनिन्छ, शास्त्रमा सुरा पनि भनिन्छ, रसायनशास्त्रको भाषामा अल्कोहल भनिन्छ अनि अल्कोहलको मात्रामा र स्वादमा विविधताका दृष्टिले मदिराभित्र ह्विस्की, ब्रान्डी, रम, बियर, वाइन, जाँड, तोङ्वा अनि रूखबाट सोझै निकालिने खजुर र ताडी आदि सबै पर्दछन्। यी सबै मादक पेयहरू मूलभूत रूपमा तीन किसिमले बन्दछन् — (१) अन्नबाट बनाइन्छ, २. फलहरू र फूलहरू (महुवा आदि) बाट बनाइन्छ, अनि (३) विशेष प्रजातिको वृक्षलाई ताछेर त्यसको रस वा चोपबाट बनाइन्छ। यसरी बनाइने मदिराहरूमध्ये कुनचाहिँ मदिरा देवताहरूले पान गर्ने सोमरससँग मिल्दोजुल्दो छ त ? यो पनि चर्चाको विषय हुन सक्छ।

एकथरी सन्त–महात्माहरूले गरेको अभिभाषण वा प्रवचनमा ‘वेदवर्णित देवताहरूले पान गर्ने भनेको सोमरस मदिरा किमार्थ होइन, किनभने सोम भनेको चन्द्रमा हो र चन्द्रमाको शीतलतालाई पान गर्ने कामलाई नै सोमरसपान भनिएको हो’ भनेर अथ्र्याएको मैले सुनेको छु। नेपाल राजकीय प्रज्ञाप्रतिष्ठान

(हालको नेपाल प्रज्ञाप्रतिष्ठान) द्वारा प्रकाशित ‘नेपाली वृहत् शब्दकोश’ मा ‘सोमरस’ लाई ‘सोमलता नामको लहराबाट निकालिने देवताहरूले पान गर्ने रस एवं सोमरसले झैँ मत्याउने पेयपदार्थ’ भनेर अर्थ लगाइएको छ। सोही शब्दकोशमा ‘सोमलता’ लाई चाहिँ ‘शुक्लपक्षमा दिनहुँ पातहरू पलाउने र कृष्णपक्षमा क्रमशः झर्दै गएर औँसीको दिनमा डाँठ मात्र बाँकी रहने हिमालयतिर पाइने एक लहरो’ भनिएको छ। शब्दकोशले उक्त लहरोको बोटानिकल नाम भने दिन सकेको छैन। यसरी शब्दकोशले परोक्ष रूपले सोमरसलाई मत्याउने पदार्थका रूपमा स्वीकारेको देखिन्छ। साथै उक्त शब्दकोशमा नै ‘सुरा’ शब्दको अर्थ दिने क्रममा ‘(१) रक्सी, मदिरा, मद्य, (२) सोमरस, (३) जल, पानी’ भनेर थप भ्रम सिर्जना गरिदिएको देखिन्छ।

यी प्रश्नहरू वा शङ्काहरूको निवारण गर्न फेरि वेदतिर नै जाऊँ। हिन्दूहरूको मात्र होइन, मानवजातिकै प्राचीनतम ग्रन्थका रूपमा ‘ऋग्वेद’ लाई मानिएको छ। यस कुरामा पाश्चात्य विद्वान्हरूको पनि विमति छैन। वेद विभिन्न समयमा विभिन्न ऋषिहरूले साक्षात्कार गरेका मन्त्रहरूको सङ्ग्रह हो। मन्त्रसङ्ख्याको दृष्टिले १०५५२ मन्त्रहरू भएको ‘ऋग्वेद’ लाई वेदहरूमध्येको जेठो र गहन मानिएको छ। वेदलाई संहिता, ब्राह्मण, आरण्यक र उपनिषद् गरी चार भागमा विभाजन गरिएअनुसार ‘ऋग्वेद’ का पनि चार भाग छन्। ऐतरेय र कौषीतकी यी दुई ‘ऋग्वेद’ का ब्राह्मण हुन्। आरण्यकहरूमा ऐतरेयारण्यक, साङ्ख्याउन र कौषीतकी गरी तीन आरण्यकहरू प्रसिद्ध छन्।

वेदका मन्त्रहरूलाई ऋचा भनिन्छ। ‘ऋग्वेद’ को पहिलो मण्डलको सूक्त २३ को २३० औँ ऋचामा ‘हे वायुदेव ! आऊ र यी दूध मिसाइएका कडा सोमरसहरू पान गर’ भनेर भनिएको प्रसङ्ग र सोही मण्डलको सूक्त ५ को ४५ औँ ऋचामा सोमरसलाई दहीमिश्रित पवित्र पदार्थका रूपमा उद्धृत गरिएबाट केही धार्मिक विद्वान्हरूले ‘ऋग्वेद’ मा वर्णित सोमरस पञ्चामृत हुन सक्ने तर्क अघि सारेका छन्। वैदिक कर्मकाण्डका यज्ञ, पूजा आदिमा सबै देवीदेवताहरूलाई पञ्चामृत अर्पण गरिन्छ, जुन पाँच पदार्थको मिश्रित झोल हो। ती पाँच पदार्थहरूमा गाईको दूध, गाईको दही, गाईको घिउ, सखर (वा चिनी) र मह पर्दछन्। ‘ऋग्वेद’ को बाँकी प्रसङ्गलाई बेवास्ता गरेर ती दुई ऋचाहरूलाई मात्र लिँदा सोमरसलाई हालको पञ्चामृतजस्तो रस भनेर भन्न सकिन्छ। तर अन्य प्रसङ्गहरूमा चाहिँ वनस्पति वा लतातिर बढी सङ्केत गरिएको छ।

‘ऋग्वेद’ कै प्रथम मण्डलको सूक्त ५ को ३७ औँ मन्त्रमा सोमरसलाई यज्ञको सम्पत्ति, नेताहरूलाई उत्साहित गर्ने, वहनशील, साथीहरूलाई आनन्द दिने, शीघ्र प्रभाव पार्ने भनेर वर्णन गरिएको छ। वेदको यो वर्णनमा रहेको ‘नेतृत्ववर्गलाई उत्साहित गर्ने, आनन्द दिने र शीघ्र प्रभाव पार्ने’ यी तीन गुण मदिराको गुणसँग मिल्ने भएकाले केही पण्डितहरूले मदिराको नाता सोमरससँग जोड्न खोजेको देखिन्छ।

‘ऋग्वेद’ को सूक्त २८ को ३१३ औँ मन्त्रमा ‘पिँध मोटो भएको ढुङ्गालाई माथि राखेर त्यहाँ ओखलमा पिसिएको सोमरस बारम्बार खाऊ’ भनेर इन्द्रको स्तुति गरिएकाले सोमरस ओखलमा पिसेर निकालिने रस रहेछ भन्ने बुझिन्छ। सोही सूक्तको ३१४ देखि ३२१ सम्मका ८ वटा मन्त्रहरूमा मुस्ली र ओखलबाट सोमरस उत्पादन हुने कुराको उल्लेख छ, अनि वृक्ष–वनस्पतिहरूको पनि उल्लेख भएको हुँदा कुनै वनस्पतिविशेषलाई ओखलमा पिसेर विशिष्ट प्रकारको मीठो रस निकालिने कुरो बुझिन्छ। चास्नीमा छानेर सोमरस निकाल्ने प्रविधिको समेत उल्लेख गरिएको छ। सूक्त ३० मा पुनः दूध मिसाइएको सोमरसको वर्णन छ। हाल चलनचल्तीमा खाइने रक्सी, बियर आदि विश्वमा कहीँ कतै पनि दूधसँग मिसाएर अथवा दहीसँग मिसाएर खाइने चलन छैन। त्यसैले मदिरासँग सोमरसको एकता स्थापित गर्न सकिँदैन। वेदवर्णित सोमरस उत्पादन गर्ने विधि र मदिरा उत्पादन गर्ने विधिमा पनि फरक छ। सोमरस निकाल्न ओखल, मुस्ली आदि प्रविधि पाइएकाले यो प्रविधि वनौषधि निकाल्ने आयुर्वेदिक प्रविधि रहेको प्रतीत हुन्छ।

‘ऋग्वेद’ को पहिलो मण्डलको ८९७ औँ ऋचामा सोमरसलाई शीतलता प्रदान गर्ने, आनन्द दिने र बल दिने भनिएको छ भने ९०४ औँ ऋचामा ‘ऋत्विक्हरूले इन्द्रको प्रसादका रूपमा सोमरस खाँदा साँच्चै नै तृप्त भएर आ–आफ्नो शरीर हल्लाए’ भनिएको छ। यहाँ ‘खाएर शरीर हल्लाए’ भनिएबाट सोमरस मादक पदार्थ हुन सक्ने अनुमान गरिएको हुन सक्छ। त्यस्तै त्यही मण्डलको ९०७ र ९०८ औँ ऋचामा इन्द्रलाई सोमरसले मनग्गे खुसी पारेको हुँदा ‘गएर आफ्नी पत्नीसँग पारिवारिक सुख प्राप्त गर’ भनिएबाट सोमरस पुष्टिवद्र्धक अति पौष्टिक पेय हो भन्ने अर्थबोध हुन्छ। यसै गरी अन्य ऋचाहरूमा पनि सोमरसलाई बल दिने, मीठो, स्वादिलो आदि विशेषण दिइएको छ।

यसरी शास्त्रहरूमा वर्णित सोमरसपान र सुरापान बिलकुलै फरक कुरा हुन् भनेर बुझ्नुुपर्ने हुन्छ। वेदमा उल्लिखित अश्वबलि र पशुबलिको साङ्केतिक अर्थ नबुझेर वर्तमान हिंसाप्रधान बलि र केही आदिवासी समाजमा प्रचलित नरबलिलाई वेदसँग जोड्ने धृष्टता गरिएजस्तै अचेलको मदिरालाई वैदिक सोमरससँग जोड्नु पनि धृष्टता नै हो। वेदमा धेरै ठाउँमा यज्ञलाई अहिंसामय यज्ञ भनेर बताइएबाट पनि पशुबलि वैदिक यज्ञको विरासत होइन भनेर बुझ्नुपर्ने थियो।

‘ऋग्वेद’ को प्रसङ्गबाट कतिसम्मचाहिँ प्रस्ट हुन्छ भने सोमरस सात्विक पेयपदार्थ हो जो देवताहरूले पान गर्दथे, यो यज्ञको एक अङ्ग पनि हो, कुनै खास वनस्पति वा लतालाई कुटेर त्यसको रस छानेर सोमरस बनाइन्थ्यो, जुन रस दही र दूधसँग मिसाएर सेवन गर्दा अझ बढी लाभदायक हुन्थ्यो। यज्ञमा सोमरस पान गर्न सबै वैदिक देवताहरू आउन आतुर हुने स्थितिलाई बुझ्दा केचाहिँ अर्थ लगाउन सकिन्छ भने सोमरस देवताहरू आफैँले उत्पादन गर्न नसक्ने तर मनुष्यहरूले उत्पादन गरेर देवतालाई अर्पण गर्न सक्ने झोल पदार्थ रहेछ।

‘महाभारत’ को उद्योगपर्वमा महात्मा विदुर र राजा धृतराष्ट्रबीचको संवाद छ जसलाई विदुरनीति पनि भनिन्छ। त्यसमा विदुरले एउटा राजाले सातवटा दुर्गुणबाट टाढै रहनु भनेर मद्यपानलाई पनि एउटा दुर्गुण बताएका छन्। भद्रपुरुषले मद्यपान गर्न हुँदैन भन्ने विदुरको ठहर छ। ऋग्वेदकालीन इन्द्र देवताका राजा, भगवान् विष्णुका अंशपुरुष भएका कारणले इन्द्रले पान गर्ने सोमरस मद्यपान हुने सम्भावना देखिँदैन।

‘श्रीमद्भगवद्गीता’ को सत्रौँ अध्यायमा श्रीकृष्णले अर्जुनलाई बताएको सात्विक, राजसी र तामसी खाद्यवस्तुको व्याख्याअनुसार मदिरा दुर्गन्धित, बासी, उच्छिष्ट मादक द्रव्य भएकाले त्यो तामसी भोजन हो। तामसी वस्तु वैदिक यज्ञमा चढ्ने या चढाइने कुरै भएन। परम्परागत रूपमा रक्सी सेवन गर्ने विश्वका केही आदिवासी जनजातिहरूले भौगोलिक विशिष्टताका कारण जाडोबाट बच्न रक्सी सेवन गर्ने गरेका र आफूले सेवन गरेको वस्तु आफ्ना इष्टदेवतालाई समेत अर्पण गर्ने गरेका कारण त्यो नै परम्परा बन्न गएको र देवतालाई पनि रक्सी चढाउन थालिएको कुरा बुझ्न सकिन्छ। तान्त्रिक पद्धतिमा पनि देवतालाई मदिरा चढाइन्छ, तर वैदिक पद्धतिमा मदिरा वर्जित छ र ब्राह्मण–क्षत्री मात्र चतुर र छट्टु जाति भएकाले तिनीहरूले आफूले सेवन गर्ने सबै वस्तु भगवान्लाई चढाउँदैनन् वा भनौँ देवताहरूलाई नचढ्ने अभक्ष वस्तुसमेत भक्षण गर्ने गरेका छन्।

वेदमा सोमयाग, राजसूययज्ञ, अश्वमेधयज्ञ आदि ठूला–ठूला यज्ञहरूमा सोमलतालाई पिसेर मन्त्रोच्चारणसहित सोमरस निकाली देवतालाई चढाउने प्रसङ्ग आउँछ। यो रस पुष्टिवद्र्धक, वीर्यवद्र्धक र पवित्र रस भएकाले देवताहरूलाई अर्पण गरिएको हुँदा ऋचाहरूको प्रसङ्ग, सन्दर्भ र सङ्केतलाई नबुझेर वा बढी बुझेर त्यो रसलाई सुरा वा मदिरा थियो भन्नु भनेको वेदका त्यस्तै मन्त्रहरू नबुझेर वा बढी बुझेर अश्वबलि र पशुबलिबाट बलिप्रथा र नरबलिप्रथा जस्ता गलत प्रथाहरूलाई परम्परा र धर्मको जलप लगाइदिएजस्तै हो भन्न सकिन्छ। प्रकृति वा ईश्वरका स्थलचर, जलचर र नभचर जीवहरूमध्ये अनि ब्रह्माजीका दस प्रकारका सृष्टिहरूमध्ये मानवजातिलाई उत्कृष्ट मानिएको छ। अन्य चराचुरुङ्गी र जीवजन्तुहरूभन्दा मानवलाई उत्कृष्ट बनाउने तàवका रूपमा मानवजातिलाई बुद्धि र विवेक दिइएको छ। त्यसैका कारण मानवजाति सिर्जनशील, कलाकार, चिन्तक, लेखक, अन्वेषक, वैज्ञानिक, दार्शनिक आदि बन्न सक्छन्, अन्य जीवहरू सक्तैनन्। यसरी प्रकृतिप्रदत्त बुद्धि र विवेकलाई केही क्षणका लागि विस्मृत गराई हामीलाई बुङ्गुर–सुँगुरजस्तो पशुतुल्य बनाउने मदिरा कसरी सोमरस हुन्छ होला त ? मानवभन्दा श्रेष्ठ सृष्टि रहेका देवताहरूले यज्ञमा कसरी मद्यपान गर्छन् होला त?

खाद्यप्रविधिसम्बन्धी विशेषज्ञहरू ह्विस्की, रम र ब्रान्डीबाहेक वाइनहरूमा १० देखि १३ प्रतिशतसम्म अल्कोहल हुने, बियरहरूमा ५ देखि ७ प्रतिशतसम्म (प्रिमियम बियरमा चाहिँ बढी) अल्कोहल हुने र टनिकहरूमा ५ प्रतिशतभन्दा कम अल्कोहल हुने कुरा बताउँछन्। सोमरस बन्ने सोमलता पनि एक प्रकारको लता भएकाले लतामा सुगर हुन्छ। त्यस्तो सुगर ग्लुकोजबाट नसालु पेय बनाइँदा पनि ५ प्रतिशतभन्दा बढी अल्कोहल हुने सम्भावना देखिँदैन।

यसरी हेर्दा सोमरस पुष्टिवद्र्धक, बलवद्र्धक र गुलियो, मीठो हुने हुँदा भिटामिन टनिकजस्तो पेय पदार्थ हुन सक्छ भन्न सकिन्छ, जसमा ४–५ प्रतिशत अल्कोहलको मात्रा रहनु अस्वाभाविक देखिँदैन। वनस्पति कुटेर सोमरस बनाइने हुँदा यो पेय पनि तराईतिरका वनस्पति खजुर र ताडीको रस, नरिवलको पानी जस्तो शीतलता दिने, मीठो, बल दिने र स्वादिलो पेय रहेछ भनेर बुझ्नुपर्ने हुन्छ, जसमा केही प्रतिशत अल्कोहलको मात्रा पनि हुन सक्छ भन्ने तर्कमा भने केही तुक भेटिन्छ।

 

Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in Nepal: Prospects and Challenges

Khagendra Acharya

In this article I discuss some of the aspects that pertain to Open and Distance Learning (ODL) in Nepali context. More specifically, drawing from the articles which explicate the prevalence of ODL in developing countries, I delineate on the prospects and challenges of ODL in Nepalese context. As such, the article aims to explore fundamental aspects of popularly designated alternative paths to the traditional mode of learning.

Background

Broadly, the beginning of ODL dates back to 18th Century due to the phenomenal advancement and innovation in transportation and communication heralded by industrial revolution. In Desmond Keegan’s account, ODL as alternative model of education started when technology made it feasible to separate teacher and learner from a fixed place, at a fixed time, to meet a fixed person, in order to be trained. An alternative account at micro level, i.e., at the level of individual, invokes the name of Isaac Pitrnan (in 1840 Britain) as the precursor of this mode with his initiation of modern correspondence education.

Started with correspondence mode, ODL is now agreed to have undergone notably four other stages namely multimedia model, tele-learning model, flexible learning model and interactive flexible learning model (Taylor). The proliferation suffices to prove why ODL has been so widely accepted in the western hemisphere and why European countries have established and recognized this method through European Distance Education Network (EDEN).

Compared to the genesis of ODL in the west, its official and documented history in South Asian Countries (SAC), however, carries shorter history. The table below shows the history of open and distance learning in the SAC (I have included only the State Universities which offer courses in ODL mode):

Table 1: History of Open University in SAC[1]

Country Year Institute
Afghanistan None
Bangladesh 1985 Bangladesh Institute of Distance Education (BIDE)/ Bangladesh Open University was established in 1992.
Bhutan None
India 1982 Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University (BRAOU), formerly known as Andhra Pradesh Open University/ The National Open University of India was established in 1985.
Maldives 1999 Tertiary Institute for Open Learning; the institute was under The Maldives National University
Pakistan 1974 Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU)
Sri Lanka 1980 Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSC)

Though offered very lately, ODL in SAC has been gaining an increased attention and thereby a phenomenal growth in recent years. The change can best be described as the move of ODL from marginal to integral part of overall educational provision.

Introduction

In Nepalese context, ODL offered by the state’s own establishment carries no history in the sense that the government’s plan to establish Open University Nepal (OUN) has yet not been materialized. Hence, ODL in relation to OUN can be discussed only at the level of efforts made[2]. The government’s initial endeavour can be located in the very year when Nepali Government became a signatory of SAARC Consortium to Open and Distance Learning (SACODiL) in 1999. Wagle recall of the government’s effort for Open University also establishes 1990 as a starting point:

The MoE (Ministry of Education) itself constituted an Open Learning and Distance Education (OLDE) Committee in 1999 under the chairmanship of then Secretary of Education to suggest the government with modalities of OLDE in Nepal. The Committee comprising OLDE experts suggested the government with alternatives of programs and resources. (The Himalayan Times)

Nonetheless, the report, Wagle writes very sarcastically, must be gathering dust in some cabinet of the MoE even today. Since 1999 the agenda does not seem to have occupied any importance for around a decade. Exactly after eleven years, i.e., in October 2010, another notable [might be more optimistic effort from the government due to collaborative nature of the venture: MoE and Non-Resident Nepali Association (NRNA) have signed in the agreement to start Open University Nepal (OUN)] move appears visible. The proposed OUN has included the following major objectives:

  • Close the gap in higher education demand, currently unmet by the combined capacity of all the institutions, through open and distance mechanisms.
  • Take tertiary education to the rural, remote, and marginalized people of Nepal, especially women and Dalits, who are practically confined to the villages due to family obligations, social challenges, and financial constraints.
  • Provide opportunities for teachers and government employees who are unable to advance their education, skills and careers while living in rural and remote places, or to those who are unemployed.
  • Provide a mechanism to continue education for the youth who take temporary or permanent employment in foreign countries.
  • Advance a computer-based education to rural Nepal that relates to health, social-systems, productivity, economic improvement, and sustainability disciplines.

(Source: Rasali, Adhikari and Dhakal)

The outcome of the effort, however, has been only a ray of hope for the advocates of ODL. In a context when the plan is in incubation period, writing on the prospect of ODL might sound highly phantasmagoric. Here, I caution my readers not to harness total skepticism mainly for two reasons: first, the government of Nepal along with a promising partner has declared an Open University as a viable and appropriate means to provide mass access to tertiary education; second, ODL has already been in operation since the turn of century in Nepal through accredited universities such as Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU).

Prospects

ODL by its nature carries promising features such as egalitarianism, equality of educational opportunities, flexible curricula (Peters). Consequently, the mode bears significant potential to widen access to higher education which in Nepalese context has appeared very tough due to various constrains. The following elements appear to create noteworthy scope for ODL.

Availability of Learners

The inability of Nepali government to tackle the consequences of diversity, whether prevalent in the form of extreme economic disparity or geographical inaccessibility or socio-political hierarchies, had stood as a major barrier for a large population in appropriate access to education. Education opportunities were inappropriately decentralized, if not totally centralized, and thus any individual other than well-to-do economic status could not get enrolled for higher qualification. I vividly remember my father narrating his odyssey to Dharan from Khotang to study intermediate level. Many people who could not afford to make such bold decision (I am sure this number is large) could hardly own even fundamental qualifications required to take hold of opportunities which were available. And, the situation is true even now: they cannot claim for any of the provisions made by the governments firstly (though scantily) after the restoration of Democracy in 1991 and secondly after the end of Maoist Armed Conflict in 2005.

A very paradoxical situation ensnares these people now: they have opportunities but not the required qualifications. The situation thereby produces foundational reason to demand for educational qualification which does not look viable through traditional mode of education. The availability of learners due to this necessity has further increased at the acceleration of peace process. We have a large number of cadres who had joined Maoist revolution after 1996 leaving their studies are now in need of education as they have been placed back to society. The two-fold availability, along with other elements such as outbound mobility of students for foreign universities, would be productive factors in pulling learners to ODL mechanism.

Ample Libraries

Libraries in Nepal have grown phenomenally especially after the restoration of Democracy in 1991. Now, we live the condition neither of a group of young students in 1930 who were charged of sedition as they applied for permission to start a public library (the Sarawasti Public Library) nor of students who suffered in 1960 when the king dismissed Nepal’s first elected government and closed public libraries established in the fifties. As the study of Koirala and Bird has outlined, post 1991 has provided appropriate environment for, “re-opening of a number of rural community libraries which were closed during monarchy”. Similarly, a large number of INGOs such as Room to Read, and Read Nepal have been asking for government’s permission to “support for community libraries”. Consequently, the number of libraries in Nepal has increased from about 400 in 1990 to about 800 in 2003 (Shrestha qtd in Koirala and Bird 120). The quality and quantity of library has further been enhanced both by INGOs like Rural Development and Education (READ) and Room to Read, and by foreign mission libraries such as the American Library, British Council Learning Centre, Bharat Sanskritic Kendra.

Though all the libraries, especially the ones located in rural areas, might not have ample and appropriate books, their infrastructure can be used for ODL.

Contribution from Diaspora

One of the most optimistic aspects in ODL comes from the promise of contribution from Nepali diaspora. The diaspora, like the population of this type elsewhere, undergo ambivalent position: on the one hand, they meagerly wish to return their home country but on the other, they wish to see the country prospered and plan to contribute without returning. Rasali, Adhikari and Dhakal have fairly outlined the nature of potential input from the Diaspora due to their empathy for people at home:

There are a sizable number of highly qualified academics and professionals among Nepalese Diaspora, who are eager to help their motherland. Having benefited originally from the Nepal’s investment in public education and having had a first-hand experience of her needs, many of them are also eager to give back to the native land. Several members of this Diaspora group have themselves experienced the hopelessness caused by poverty, have walked barefoot to attend schools in the mountains and plains, and have faced acute shortage of books and other educational facilities when they pursued their education in Nepal.  As many of them have succeeded in obtaining world class education in spite of these insurmountable barriers, they understand the pain and frustrations of the rural poor and marginalized groups and their struggle for education, and know that success is still possible. Because of these reasons, they are well suited to help education in Nepal through open and distance learning and support the neediest groups.

The agreement made in October 2010 (it has already been mentioned) stands as a remarkable gesture of the potential.

Challenges

Challenges in ODL are inherent to the characteristics of this mode. Since it espouses values of flexibility and accessibility, it assumes learners to have sense of both autonomy and responsibility for learning. Before I discuss on the problems that start due to the collusion of two elements, I find it worthy to quote Rennie and Mason’s conclusion on the impediments in distance and distributed learning in Nepal and Bhutan:

Firstly, Internet access is improving rapidly, but is still generally too weak and inconsistent to allow any reliance on net-based learning solutions. Secondly, the academic culture is resistant to the recognition of the value of open-learning degrees, with subsequent difficulties in re-designing course materials for a more educationally flexible, student-centred learning environment.

Certainly, the ambivalent position of scholars[3] on the degree from ODL and the problems of internet access for learners account as major impediments. Leaving aside the skepticism of these scholars, I concentrate on other more important factors which make ODL more challenging. One of them, as already mentioned props up from the dialectics of autonomy and responsibility. In Nepalese context, learners’ autonomy which should be curbed by the sense of responsibility exists in very peculiar situation. Learner’s sense of autonomy often overrides their sense of responsibility. Simply stated, many learners tend to carry no responsibility in pedagogic assumptions in ODL. In turn, the tendency might culminate in using ODL as mere formality for awarding and getting certificate.

Unconducive Political Environment

Political environment in Nepal especially after the restoration of Democracy in 1991 has been constantly unstable. The phenomena such as frequent change of governments and thereby blockage of policies formulated by former government has been hindrance for any initiative. Institutions which are already in operation do not generally suffer; but the institutions like OUN which are in the making face major hindrance due to political instability. Wagle’s account succinctly presents this problem:

The education minister makes the commitment, but how long will he stay in the MoE? By the time the university bill is passed by the parliament, he may already have been out of the government because of the fluid politics of Nepal. That means another minister would have to understand the whole process again.

Lack of Electrification

ODL relies heavily on advancement and proliferated use of media and communication. More specifically, educationists need to rely on novel methods of imparting knowledge such as the internet and e-mail, telephone, CD-Roms, print materials, video cassettes and video-conferencing. All these devices need uninterrupted supply of electricity, which in Nepalese context sounds highly unlikely. Power cut has been so severe that electricity avails to us in many months only for around 6-8 hours.

Conclusion

The proliferation and thereby acknowledgement of ODL both in developing and developed countries imply the mode’s significant potential. However, this does not mean that ODL will replace the traditional mode as euphorically supposed by scholars such as Ramanujam, “the present dominance of  campus based higher education may become a thing of the past perhaps by the middle of the next century, if not earlier than that” (126). In the developing countries like Nepal, ODL has apparent scope due to the availability of learners, accessibility to libraries and promise from prospective collaborators. But, we have challenges such as unconducive political environment, lack of electrification, skepticism from some scholars regarding the strength of degree making the task of tackling almost herculean.

Works Referred

  • Chimpololo, Andrew. “The Prospects and Challenges of Open Learning and Distance Education in Malawi.” World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology. V. 66, 2010.
  • Keegan, D. Distance education technology for the new millennium: compressed video teaching.  ZIFF Papiere. Germany: Institute for Research into Distance Education, 1995.
  • Koirala, Naresh and Paul Bird. Library Development in Nepal: Problems and Prospects. Retrived on 20 February 2011 from http://www.nepallibrary.org/sites/default/files/Library%20Development%20in%20Nepal%20-%20Problems%20and%20Prospects.pdf
  • Ramanajum, P. R. Distance Education in Developing Countries: Prospects and Challenges.
  • Rasali D, Adhikari A. and Dhakal P. “A Proposal for Open University for Rural and Marginalized People.” nepalnews.com. http://www.nepalnews.com/home/index.php/guest-column/7001-a-proposal-for-open-university-for-rural-and-marginalized-people.html
  • Rennie, Frank and Robin Mason. “The Development of Distributed Learning Techniques in Bhutan and Nepal.” The International review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. Accessed on 17 February 2012 from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/339/765
  • Taylor, James. New Millennium Distance Education. Retrieved on 18 February 2012 from http://www.amigostercermundo.org/docs/FTW%20WORD%20(7).pdf
  • Wagle, Mana P. “Will it Open in Nepal?” The Himalayan Times. http://www.thehimalayantimes.com/fullNews.php?headline=Open+University+&NewsID=283434


[1]  I have relied heavily on internet sites though I have cross-checked many sites, I regret any discrepancies.

[2] Read Prof. Mana Wagle’s articles for the endeavours put by private sector for establishing Open University at http://www.thehimalayantimes.com/fullNews.php?headline=Open+University+&NewsID=283434.

[3] Some scholars blindly believe that anyone who has acquired degree through distance mode does not have skills as much as it is required for being in the profession. Though ridiculous due to over generalizing and egoistic tendency in the argument, we still have this population in academia.

अन्तरिक्ष–विज्ञान सम्बन्धमा केही चर्चा

– निर्मलमणि अधिकारी

विश्वका प्रायः सबै पाठशालाहरुमा निकोलस कपर्निकस (सन् १४७३– १५४३) लाई सर्वप्रथम सौरमण्डलको विज्ञान–सम्मत अध्ययन गर्ने वैज्ञानिकको रुपमा मान्यता प्राप्त छ। अन्तरिक्ष विज्ञानसम्बन्धी चर्चा अधिकांशतः आरम्भ गरिन्छ उनैको नामबाट। पछि केप्लर, ग्यालिलियो, न्यूटन आदि वैज्ञानिकहरुले यिनैको सिद्धान्तको अनुशरण गरेका हुन् भनिन्छ। ग्यालिलियो ग्यालिलि (सन् १५६४– १६४२) टेलिस्कोपको आविष्कार गर्ने वैज्ञानिक हुन् र यिनले परावर्तित प्रकाशद्वारा अन्तरिक्षको विशिष्ट अध्ययन गर्न सकेका छन्। यी वैज्ञानिकहरुको योगदानलाई म आदर गर्छु र उनीहरुप्रति मेरो सम्मान छ। तर मलाई चित्त नबुझेको कुरोपनि यहीँनेर छ। प्राचीन भारतवर्षका वैज्ञानिकहरुलाई आधुनिक विश्व-समुदायले चटक्कै बिर्सेको छ र ती प्राचीन वैज्ञानिकहरुले आफूले गरेका आविष्कारको श्रेय पाइराखेका छैनन्। पख्नोस्, वेदसम्म पुग्नुअघि पहिले त केही शताब्दीअघिको कुरा गरौं।

माथिनै उल्लेखित छकि कपर्निकसको समय थियो सन् १४७३– १५४३ र ग्यालिलियोको समय थियो सन् १५६४– १६४२। जबकि पाँचौं शताब्दीका (अर्थात्, कपर्निकसको तुलनामा करिब एक हजार वर्ष प्राचीन) भारतवर्षीय वैज्ञानिक आर्यभट्टको पुस्तक ‘आर्यभट्टीय’मा अन्तरिक्ष विज्ञानको जति तथ्य लेखिछाडिएको छ; त्यो हेर्दाखेरिमा स्पष्ट हुन्छकि आधुनिक विश्वका सबै पाठशालाहरुमा आर्यभट्टलाईनै सौरमण्डलको विज्ञान–सम्मत अध्ययन गर्ने पहिलो वैज्ञानिकको रुपमा मान्यता दिनुपर्ने हुन्छ। आर्यभट्टको वैज्ञानिक सिद्धान्तलाई आज उनीभन्दा धेरैपछिका कपर्निकसको सिद्धान्त भनेर पढाइनु अन्यायपूर्ण कार्य हो। आर्यभट्टीय पुस्तक अहिले पनि प्राप्य छ (यसलाई पश्चिमाहरुलेचाहिँ सन् ९५० को भन्दछन्) — जसमा उनले सूर्यग्रहण र चन्द्रग्रहणको वैज्ञानिक कारण दिएका छन्। पृथ्वीले सूर्यलाई घुम्दछ र त्यसै कारणले दिन–रातको भेद हुन्छ भनेर लेखेका छन्। सोही पुस्तकमा आर्यभट्ट लेख्छन्— चन्द्रमा तथा अन्य ग्रहसँग आफ्नो प्रकाश छैन र तिनीहरु सूर्यको प्रकाशले प्रकाशित हुन्छन्। उनले दूरदर्शकयन्त्र पनि बनाएका थिए भनिन्छ। यसरी अहिले सर्व–स्वीकृत ‘सूर्यकेन्द्रित सिद्धान्त’का जनक आर्यभट्ट हुन् र कपर्निकस, ग्यालिलियो आदिचाहिँ त्यस परम्पराका उत्तराधिकारीमात्र हुन् भन्ने छर्लङ्ग देखिन्छ। तर विद्यालय, उच्चविद्यालय तथा विश्वविद्यालयहरुमा किन पढाइँदैन त आर्यभट्टको योगदान ? कम्तीमापनि नेपाल–भारतका विद्यालय, उच्चविद्यालय तथा विश्वविद्यालयहरुमा त पढाइनै पर्छ उनको बारेमा।

चन्द्रमामा मानव बस्ती बसाल्ने कल्पना गर्न थालेको छ आधुनिक मानवले। मिति सन् १९५७ अक्टोबर ४ मा तत्कालीन सोभियत संघद्वारा स्पुतनिक–१ मानवनिर्मित प्रथम अन्तरिक्षयान प्रक्षेपण गरेपछि आधुनिक विज्ञानको अन्तरिक्षसम्बन्धी अध्ययनको नयाँ अध्यायको आरम्भ भएको थियो। सन् १९५९ मालुना–२ चन्द्र धरातलमा पुग्योभने सन् १९६१ अप्रिल १२ मा सोभियत रुसले युरी गागरिनलाई अन्तरिक्षमा पठायो। सं.रा. अमेरिका सन् १९५८ जनवरी ३१ मा एक्सप्लोर–१ प्रक्षेपण गरी अन्तरिक्ष विज्ञानको क्षेत्रमा प्रवेश ग-यो। सन् १९६९ जुलाइ १६ मा केप केनेडीबाट नील आर्मस्ट्रङ्, एडविन एल्ड्रीन र माइकल कलिन्सलाई लिएर उडेको ‘अपोलो’ अन्तरिक्षयान चन्द्रमामा पुग्न सफल हुनुलाई आधुनिक विज्ञानको महान् उपलब्धि मानिएको छ। त्यसपछिका दिनमा अन्तरिक्षतर्फ धेरैओटा अन्तरिक्षयानहरु प्रक्षेपण गरिएका छन्। अन्तरिक्ष विज्ञानका क्षेत्रमा भए–गरेका उपलब्धिहरुप्रति गर्व गर्न हिच्किचाउनु पर्दैन। साथसाथै गर्वयोग्य कुरो योपनि छकि हाम्रा प्राचीन शास्त्रहरुमा अन्तरिक्ष विज्ञानको भण्डार छ।

तर, हाम्रा प्राचीन शास्त्रहरुमा अन्तरिक्ष विज्ञानको भण्डार भएको कत्तिपनि मेसो नपाएका तथा “नील आर्मस्ट्रङ्हरु चन्द्र धरातलमा पुगे अरे ….” भन्दाखेरिमा पनि ट्वाँऽऽ परेर बस्ने व्यक्तिहरुपनि थुप्रै छन्। धर्मशास्त्र भन्नेबित्तिकै नाक चेप्राउने उल्लुहरुको संख्यापनि कम छैन। अनि, शास्त्रलाई पोको पारेर पुजामात्र गर्ने, पढ्न–गुन्नचाहिँ नखोज्ने प्रवृत्तिपनि देखिएकै छ।

चन्द्रमामा पहिरो गएर विचित्र किसिमको शब्द भइरहने गर्छ तथा त्यहाँ सात किसिमका पत्थरहरु छन् भन्ने तथ्य ऋग्वेद र शुक्लयजुर्वेदमा उल्लिखित रहेको पाइएको छ। (यहाँ त्यो ‘पहिरो’लाई सामान्य अर्थमा बुझ्ने गल्ती नगरौं नि !) आधुनिक अन्तरिक्ष विज्ञानले पत्ता लगाएको कुरा पनि यस्तै छ। यसरी सो वैदिक तथ्यलाई आधुनिक अन्तरिक्ष वैज्ञानिकहरुले पनि पुष्टि गरेका छन्। वेदमा भनिएझैं नै धातु खानी भएको तथ्यपनि क्रमशः प्रमाणित भइरहेका छन्। विश्वको सबैभन्दा पुरानो शास्त्र ऋग्वेदको भनाइ आधुनिक वैज्ञानिकहरुको खोजीले पुष्टि हुनुको ठुलो अर्थ छ। यसले इंगित गर्ने संकेत पनि निक्कै महत्वपूर्ण छ।

वेदमा “यां चन्द्रमसि ब्राह्मणा दधुः” भनी ब्राह्मणहरुले पृथ्वीको भाग चन्द्र धरातलमा लगेर राखेको प्रागैतिहासिक कालको ‘इतिहास’पनि भेटिइएको छ। यस तथ्यले के देखाएको छभने नील आर्मस्ट्रङ्हरुलाई चन्द्र धरातलमा पुग्ने प्रथम मानवको मान्यता अहिले मिलिरहेको छतापनि उनीभन्दा हजारौं वर्ष अघि (कुनै युगमा) ऋषि एवम् ब्राह्मणहरु चन्द्र धरातलमा पुगेको हुनुपर्छ। अझ आश्चर्यको कुरो लाग्नसक्छ तपाईंहरुलाई— वेदमा अन्तरिक्षयान निर्माण गर्ने र विभिन्न लोकमा यात्रा गर्ने प्रविधिको बयान गरिएका ऋचाहरु हामीसँग छँदैछन् र यदि त्यसकालागि खर्च हुने अरबौं रुपैयाँ उपलब्ध हुनसक्दा हामीले त्यस्ता अन्तरिक्षयानहरु निर्माण गर्न सकिन्छ। आर्य परम्पराका शास्त्रहरु वेद, उपनिषद् आदि र ‘विज्ञान’ बीचको अन्तर्सम्बन्ध बुझ्न नसक्दा हामीलाई भइरहेको घाटाको पत्तो कतिलाई होला ? अनि ख्याल रहोस्— यदि आधुनिक प्रविधिपनि लिन नसक्ने र परम्परागत प्रविधिपनि बिर्सने होभने समयको प्रवाहमा गतार्थ (आउटडेटेड) भई कालान्तरमा समाप्तै हुने नियति भोग्नुपर्छ नि !

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