आस्तिक दर्शन अनुसार संसारको उत्पत्ति

– रामचन्द्र पौडेल

आस्तिक दशर्नले मूलपुरुष स्थायी मान्छ । किनभने  यसको उत्पत्ति छैन र  विनास पनि छैन । यो सनातन प्रकृतिभन्दा पृथक र सर्वव्यापी पनि छ । विस्तृत यो संसारमा बीजरूप पुरूष जीवात्मा बन्छ । अनन्त अन्तस्करणका सम्बन्धले अनन्त बन्छ, । जडत्व यद्वा सक्रिय त्रिगुणात्मक प्रकृति र पुरुषका रूपमा परमात्मा तत्व बन्दा शुद्ध चेतन निष्क्रिय भएर ज्ञान स्वरुपमा परिणत हुन्छ । सत्व, रज, तम मूल प्रकृतिका तीन गुण हुन्छन् जो कुनै समय विशेषमा साम्यावस्थामा रहेका हुन्छन्  र कुनै बेला विषम अवस्थामा । जब तीनै गुणका  गुण साम्यवस्थामा हुन्छन् त्यो प्रलयावस्थामा कहलिन्छ र मूल प्रकृति र पुरुषबाहेक यस बेला अरु केही पनि हुँदैन । फेरि प्रकृतिमा संयोग हुनथाल्दा तिनै गुणमा न्यूनाधिकता हुन थाल्छ र प्रथमत:  सत्वगुणको प्रधानताबाट महतत्व अथवा बुद्धि तत्वको उत्पत्ति हुन्छ ।  बुद्धितत्वमा रजोगुणको प्रबलताले अहंकारको उत्पत्ति गराउँछ र अहंकारमा जब तमो गुणको प्रावल्य सुरु हुन्छ अनि शब्द, स्पर्श,रूप, रस र गन्ध गरी पाँचवटा सूक्ष्म तन्मात्रा उत्पत्ति हुन्छन् । तमो गुणको अत्यधिक वृद्धि हुन्छ अनि यिनै सूक्ष्म तन्मात्राबाट पञ्च स्थूलभूत अर्थात् आकाश, वायु, अग्नि, जल र पृथ्वीको उत्पत्ति हुन्छ । यी पञ्‍चमहाभूत र तीनका न्यूनाधिक सहकार्यबाट थरिथरिका स्थावर, जङ्गम सृष्टि हुन थाल्छन् किनकि प्रकृतिका सत्व, रज र तमोगुण भिन्नभिन्न स्वभावका भए पनि यिनीहरू सधैँ एकसाथ रहन्छन् र यिनीहरूकै न्यूनाधिक संयोगबाट नै संसारको सृष्टि हुन्छ । जसरी तेल, बत्ती र दीयोको तीन कुरा पृथक् पृथक् छन्, यिनैको  संयोजबाट  बलेको दीयोको ज्योतिले अन्धकारलाई हटाएर सृष्टिलाई उज्यालो गराउँछ,  त्यसै गरी यी तीन गुणले पनि सृष्टि गर्छन् । विश्‍वका सबै मानिस र जीवहरू पृथकपृथक देखिनु उनै परमात्माको देन हो भनेर विद्वान्हरूले स्वीकार गर्दै आएका  छन् ।  श्रीमद्भागवतमा भगवान्ले आफ्नो योगमाया अर्थात् प्रकृतिरूपी उपादान कारणका सहायताले यस संसारको निर्माण गरेको विसद् वर्णन छ । संसारको निर्माणको  पहिलो अवस्थामा ब्रह्म एक्लै थियो, त्यसलाई देख्ने कुनै जीव विशेष थिएन, त्यति बेला उसले हेर्न खोज्यो तर उसले केही पनि देखेन अनि ईश्वरले ‘‘एकोऽहं बहुस्याम’ अर्थात् एक छु अनेक हुन्छु भन्ने भावनाबाट प्रेरित भएर त्रिगुणामयी मायाको सृष्टिा ग¥यो । अनि ईश्वरले आफ्नो अंशलाई पुरुषमा परिणत गराएर मायामा आफ्नो रेतस् (विर्य) लाई प्रवेश गरी चैतन्यलाई उत्पन्न गरायो । त्यस चैतन्यबाट सत्व रज र तम उत्पन्‍न भए । सात्विक अहंकारबाट मनेन्द्रियको अधिष्ठाता देवता उत्पन्न भए । राजस अहंकारबाट दशेन्द्रिय (वाक्—पाणि—पाद—पायु—उपस्थ) पाँच कर्मेन्द्रिय, चक्षु—रसना—घ्राण—त्वक्—श्रोत्र) पाँच ज्ञानेन्द्रिय उत्पन्न भए । तामसबाट पञ्चमहाभूत (पृथ्वी—जल—तेज—वायु—आकाश) उत्पन्न भए । 

शतपथ ब्राह्मण तथा पुराणहरूमा उल्लेखभए अनुसार जलामय संसारबाट एउटा ब्रह्माण्डको उत्पत्ति भयो, त्यस ब्रह्माण्डबाट चतुर्मुखी ब्रह्मा उत्पन्‍न भए  । उनले धेरै वर्षसम्म भगवान्को तपस्या गरे । ब्रह्माका तपस्याबाट खुशी भएका परमपिता ईश्वरले प्रजासृष्टिका लागि ब्रह्मालाई आज्ञा दिए । फलस्वरुप ब्रह्माको  दाहिने अंगबाट स्वयम्भू नाम गरेका पुरुष र बाया अंगबाट शतरुपा नाम गरेकी स्त्री पैदा भइन् । यी दुईका मिथुनी धर्मबाट सारा जीवको उत्पत्ति भएको भनाइ पाइन्छ । यो पूर्वीय मान्यता हो । यस्ता कुराहरू अधिकांश पुराणहरूमा पाइन्छन् । 

नासदीय सूक्तका अनुसार सृष्टिपूर्व संसार भनेको केही थिएन । सत्य—असत्य, चौध भुवन, केही  पनि थिएनन् । जन्म–मृत्यृ र रात–दिन भन्ने पनि थिएन, तर एउटा निराकार परब्रह्म  वायुविना पनि आफ्नो इच्छा अनुसार शेष थियो र त्यसबाहेक यस संसारमा अरू केही पनि थिएन । चारैतिर अज्ञानको अन्धकार थियो र शून्य थियो । यसै बखत त्यही परब्रह्म (आत्मतत्व) आफ्नो संकल्पशक्तिले प्रकटित भयो । त्यसपछि सृष्टि गर्ने कामना (ईच्छा) जाग्यो र मनको उत्पत्ति भयो जसलाई सिर्जना र संसारको आदिबीज मानिन्छ । त्रिकालदर्शी मुनिहरूले ब्रह्मको यो सबै सृष्टिविकारलाई असत्का रूपमा लिएका छन् । अब यहाँ प्रश्न उठ्छ—सृष्टिको त्यो रश्मि (किरण) कसरी विस्तारित भयो ? एकै पटक चर—अचरको सृष्टि भयो वा क्रमागत रूपमा भयो भन्ने प्रश्न उठ्नु स्वभाविकै हो । वास्तवमा सृष्टि बीजरूप भोक्ता (जीव) र भोग्य (सांसारिक पदार्थ) को दुई रूपमा सृष्टि भयो । यसरी कर्ता र कर्मको आविर्भाव भएको देखियो ।यथार्थमा सृष्टिविज्ञान दुर्बोध्य र दुरूह छ। यसको रहस्य कसैले पत्ता लगाउन सकेको छैन। यसबारे देवताहरूलाई थाहा छैन, किन भने उनीहहरू भौतिक पदार्थको सृष्टिभन्दा धेरैपछि आविर्भाव भएका हुन् । यहाँनेर  के भन्नु युक्तिसङ्गत् हुन्छ भने यो सृष्टिचक्र जहाँबाट सञ्चालन भए पनि यसमा निरन्तरता रहेको हुन्छ। वास्तवमा यो सृष्टि उसैलाई ज्ञात हुन्छ जो संसारको नियामक र सर्वत्र व्याप्त छ। 

यसरी सृष्टिको रहस्य, सृष्टिपूर्वको शून्य स्थिति तथा परब्रह्मको सर्वव्यापकता जस्ता पक्षहरूलाई चर्चामा ल्याउने नासदीय सूक्तलाई वैचारिक उचाइको चिन्तन भन्न सकिन्छ । यसमा जन्मपूर्व र मृत्युपश्चात्को रहस्यलाई समेत जान्न चाहने उत्कण्ठा छ । अन्ततो गत्वा सबै रहस्यलाई परब्रह्ममा पु¥याएर चिन्तनलाई निराकार तथा निर्गुण तत्वमा केन्द्रित बनाइएको छ । संसारभन्दा भिन्न परम तत्व (परब्रह्म) को परिकल्पना गरेर संसार नाशवान् तथा परब्रह्म नित्य छ भन्ने जुन दृष्टिकोण यहाँ पाइन्छ । त्यो आर्यहरूको आस्थागत भावनाको परिणाम हो । नाश हुने जीवनका लागि ‘तेरो—मेरो’ भन्ने विचार राख्न हुँदैन भन्ने वेदान्तमुखी शिक्षा—उपदेशलाई समेत् नासदीय सूक्तले स्पष्ट पारेको छ । त्यसकारण नासदीय सूक्त वैदिक साहित्यमा वैचारिक उचाई भएको सूक्त हो ।  यस सन्दर्भमा ‘नासदीय सूक्त’का केही उदाहरण तल दिइएका छन् ।
       नासदासिन्नो सदासीत् तदानीं नासीत् रजो नो व्योमा परो यत् ।
       किमवरीव: कुह कस्य शर्मन् अम्भ: किमासीतद् गहनं गभीरम् ।।
अर्थात् सृष्टिपूर्व महाप्रलयको समयमा न सत् थियो न त असत् नै । लोक र आकाशहरू पनि थिएनन् । परम पद भन्ने समेत थिएन । यो जगत्को आवरण पनि देखिएन । गहन जलप्रवाह पनि थियो कि थिएन सृष्टिपूर्व केही थिएन, अदृश्य रूपमा केवल परब्रह्म थियो । उसको इच्छा मात्रले विन्दू विस्फोट भयो र यस विस्फोटले सृजना आरम्भ ग¥यो । यो भनाई र ४३५ करोड वर्षका महानिशा पछि ग्याँसको पिण्डीकरण र पिण्ड विस्फोटपछि बनेका अनन्त पिण्डमा हुने रसायनिक प्र्रतिक्रियाबाट यो सृष्टि भएको हो  भन्ने सङ्केतहरू पनि मिल्दाजुल्दा नै देखिन्छन् । यसरी ऋग्वेदको नासदीय सूक्तले पनि सृष्टिकोबारे चर्चा गरेको पाइन्छ ।

Dolmia’s Different Direction

 – Kashiraj Pandey
A middle-aged woman, tall and tired, accompanied by a charming child steps down from an airliner that brings the majority of workers back home and some tourists to Kathmandu from the Middle East everyday around lunch time.
Everybody was in a hurry to reach their destination, some to their long missed family members and others to a hotel, most probably.  Dolmia, a village lady, who had left home some ten years ago, now with her baby appeared so lonely and confused. The beautifying new set of garments and high-heeled shoes she wore made her look younger than her actual age. She was sitting with a boy in one of the far off rows of chairs that otherwise would be occupied only during the rush hour. She neither talked to anyone nor moved ahead towards immigration.
People came and went, passengers from around the globe, some from Bangkok, some from Beijing, and others from Delhi or Doha. Nothing touched her. Everyone looked at her and passed by. 
“Mamma, Lit’s go”, says Mohammed who is visiting Nepal for the first time. 
“See mamma… there”. The boy poking his mother points in the direction of all the other passengers waiting for their turn to be cleared by immigration.
“Wait for some time. I am wondering where to go”.
“Everyone has gone over there. I am hungry.”
“Okay. Here you go.”
Dolmia unzips her hand bag, takes out a packet of biscuits, and gives them to Mohammed. “Great”, expressed with a sense of happiness on finding some water saved from the flight, and a muffin.  She gives them to her boy. 
She stares at everyone who passes the arrival desk when everything around seems so alien to her.
“Dolmia Lama from Qatar” shouts the airline staff. Full of mirage, she wakes up. 

“Yes, Yes. I am here.” 
“Oh you have unclaimed baggage. Yours is the only one left from Flight 354. We were wondering what had happened to you. Please come and take your stuff. Two pieces, right?”
“Yes.”
Dolmia proceeds further, fills in the form, and passes through immigration. The man at the counter stares at them, verifying their documents; Mohammed, a very unlikely name to suit this Family of Dolmia. After official procedures, they walk down to the baggage claim, then to the customs counter, and then outside.
Fresh air and a natural life with all her people, people all alike, her own type. 
Dolmia is very nostalgic. It’s a cool and chilly afternoon. 
Dolmia and Mohammad on one side and a whole lot of people gazing at them on the other. Some were waiting to receive their own friends and relatives and others for the tourists. No one knew about Dolmia’s arrival today. Today, she is with Mohammad, her 6 year old child.
“Mohammed, your name is Mohan from today. You can call me by the same name, “mamma” but you will be addressed as Mohan. No one ever from now onwards will call you Mohammed.
“And Papa?”
“No. We will not meet him again and you will never remember that man. He will be forgotten.”
……
Dolmia was alone when she left Nepal. She had promised with Karma and two grown up girls that she would return soon with much affluence. She left this fantastic family with hope that one day she would return and pay off their loans and buy their own piece of land to build a home of their own. Her mission was to work in Qatar for three years as a caregiver. 
All her life in Nepal, she was a good wife, a mother of two girls, and an honest member of the society. The poor economic condition of the family was responsible for sending her abroad. It was against her interest but the very usual trend of people in her village forced her to think of foreign employment.
After long and deep consideration, the family together took the decision that Dolmia would go to Qatar for three years while Karma would take care of the two girls in her absence. Karma, though he had never gone to school himself, was very devotional and dedicated to the prosperity of their children’s future. He raised the girls with full care — fed them well and sent them to school with appropriate amenities. Dolmia too would send money to the family, until she experienced a twist in her life. 
Waiting outside the airport, where many taxi drivers ask her destination at minute intervals, Dolmia is speechless. 
She talks to herself, “should I go to my own family, to relatives, or towards an unknown place to other people?” 
Seeing his mother in a very confused state, Mohan speaks.
“Mamma, what are we waiting here for? Let’s go to meet my sisters. You said I have two lovely sisters waiting to see me, didn’t you?”
“Darling! Hold on. Let me think.”
“What mamma? What has happened to you today? I am so excited to meet and play with my sisters.”
“Mohan, my dear son, as I changed your name today, everything has changed. We are neither seeing Karma, nor your sisters. We should go to a hotel, to a place where no one knows us. A place where we two can have our own world, my space and Mohan’s space. A new place where you will play with me, and I with you. Something that we never had. ”
“Taxi…. taxi…. !” Shouts Dolmia. 
“Take us to a moderate hotel, will you?”
“Rupees 1000, for the ride. I will drop you at a nice hotel with a very reasonable tariff.”
“Okay, let’s go.”

My Beijing Experience

-Jangab Chauhan
The last month of 2011 left esteemed reminiscence in my heart. In the chilling cold of December, I was heading to the People’s Republic of China as one of two-member delegate led by the Registrar of Kathmandu University, Professor Bhadra Man Tuladhar. The raison d’être of our visit was participation in Sixth Conference of Confucius Institute. For me, it was also an opportunity to have first-hand witnessing of the worlds’ second greatest economic power. This sojourn, however, was my second visit; during my first one in 2005, the country had not attained the record; it was striving and my visit was not official.

During the visit, I had reached Beijing while returning from Moscow by trans-Siberian railway, which runs through the great part of Russia, Mongolia and China. I had been cordially welcomed in the quarter of China Radio International (CRI) by my friend Kamal Lamsal, whom I had known since my student life in USSR. The experience that I had shared about my trans-Siberian journey and China stay in CRI Nepali program is so vivid that it reverberates like yesterday’s episode. After having seen the grand view of eastern civilizations such as The Great Wall, ancient palaces and museums of Ming and Qing dynasties, Beijing Temple of Heaven, grand structure of Tiananmen Square, Badachu Park for five days I had travelled back to Hong Kong. It was during September. It was during this journey, I had got an opportunity to feel the grandeur of People’s Republic of China via rail journey – both the high and plain land – from northern to southern border.
I was impressed by the Chinese people’s sense of discipline in work-force, love for the nation, respect for language and culture. What would happen in such a huge country and consequently in the world if the people went anarchic! Even thinking of any undisciplined spark brings chill to the bone. Thanks to the visionary leadership and disciplined citizens of the People’s Republic of China for making the country a centre of worlds’ attraction and attention. 
Coincidently, a year after my visit i.e., in 2006 Confucius Institute was established in the name of 6th century BC Chinese thinker and social philosopher. 
Confucius is an indexical figure in Chinese tradition and belief. Based on the foundation of respect for ancestors and love for family, Confucius postulated on indispensability of family as the base of ideal state. Philosophizing further, his notions express ethical concern – do not behave with others which you do not anticipate from them. I realized that this simple sounding but very ethical and grave practice stands as golden rule for the Chinese people. Confucianism in this sense is humanism of Chinese tradition. The same of ethicality can also be observed in Confucius’s preference for exemplary governance. He would regard orders unnecessary and un-pragmatic if the leaders appropriately take in tow. Indeed, decoding underlying intelligence of the philosopher’s sense of shame would impart very evocative sense. 
From among many issues discussed in the conference, the précis I have drawn is that the People’s Republic of China has been in commendable direction. So, Confucius cannot only be linchpin of Chinese people; he is the cultural pillar of the world. 
 Confucius Institute in Kathmandu University with the co-operation of Hebei University, for us, is the matter of both happiness and pride. We wish for very active and productive presence of an institution that reminds of such a great person in Kathmandu University. 
While writing these paragraphs, I recall the concluding remarks of Dr. Hao Ping, Vice-Minister of education minster and executive member of the Council of the Confucius Institute Headquarters:
“Do wholeheartedly whatever you do.
… This gathering is a forum for diverse cultural experience.
… Confucius Institute not only belongs to the Republic of China; it is the common heritage of the world.”     
[Translated from Nepali by Khagendra Acharya]

Editorial


Nepalis are experiencing one of the most volatile times in history waiting for stability and sustainability of commonsense.  Common citizens see the present in view of the gradual dilapidation of the age-old structure of unity and shared identities. For some, the moment is not for indifference because indifference would cost little or more, now or later.  For others this is not the time to act an ostrich as if nothing is happening around.

And, in the chaotic time like today people would expect some healing ideas from one of the supposedly anxious groups of people — the intellectuals.  But, do we have intellectuals to devise ways to rescue the nation out of the mire of uncertainties? Does their anxiety involve the fate of the majority who are caught in the dilemma between optimism and pessimism?

Time entrusts intellectuals with the responsibility to generate hope and optimism. Let us reflect on these questions:  What will we do if the society and institutions we lead fail to attract and satisfy the aspirations of young people? How many aspiring youths are prepared to take us as role models for tomorrow? Let us start to think if we can help, at least in part, ensure that the country will still build up to accommodate our good expectations.

A Visit to Madam Curie Museum

– Dipak Subedi

On October 8, 2011, I got an opportunity to visit the house in which Madame Curie, one of the greatest scientists of 20th century, was born. The house is in 16 Freta street in the old town of Warsaw, the capital city of Poland. It has been turned to a museum in her name. 

The museum possesses good collection of letters and photographs which remind us of the life of a great genius in science. I had a great desire to visit the place when I read her biography written by Beverly Birch. Although Curie spent most of her life in France, it was Warsaw where she inherited a desire to devote her life in science. In the museum, we can see her writing desk, inkpot, ruler and even her spectacles case. The physics practical instruments which her father had collected and were very important in stimulating a lifelong interest in science in little Curie’s mind are now preserved in this museum. Another important aspect of the museum is that it also depicts photographs and documents about the life of her Husband Pierre Curie and her daughter Irene curie, who are also great scientists and Nobel laureates. I found that the story of the life and achievement of Madam Curie has inspired thousands of scientists around the world. 

The house in 16 Freta  Street in the old  Town of Warsaw where Marie Curie was born.
The place where the museum is situated is a unique place with exhilarating beauty of nature. Just behind the Freta street there is gentle slope leading to the bank of Vistula river which is flowing majestically dividing the historic Warsaw city. This is a lovely place. 
Curie was born in this house on November 7, 1867. There is simple plaque beside the door of this house which proudly announces the date of her birth. Her father was a Professor of physics and her mother was a teacher in a school. Marie had a great impression from her father from her early life. She was grown up in an academic environment. Her teachers remembered her as an extraordinary student even at her early years in school. At that time girls were not allowed to enter university and hence she had to go to France for higher studies. She had to work very hard for about seven years in a remote town in Poland to collect money to go abroad for study. Her intense desire to study science was fulfilled when she could get admission in a university in Paris. 
Curie recalled her happiness of the first day at the university saying that this was one of the happiest days in her life. She proved herself as one of the best students of the university few months after her arrival and after few years as one of the greatest scientists of her time. She became world famous for her discovery of radium with her husband and was awarded the 1903 Nobel prize for Physics. She again received the Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1911. This has been a rare achievement.  Madame Curie could have become one of the wealthiest persons in the world because of her discovery of the most precious element radium but she did not use her discovery for her personal benefit. She gave all the radium which she had separated by her four years of hard work with her husband to research laboratories for the benefit of mankind. It is said that when she herself needed some radium later for her own research, she did not have enough money to buy it and had to go to the USA in a fund raising program. It was a great irony.
She was not only a great scientist but also a very kind-hearted person. During the First World War, she along with her daughter served as a volunteer health worker with hundreds of mobile X-ray units built by herself. It is believed that thousands of wounded soldiers in the battlefield had undergone X-ray in her machine and were treated by Curie herself. It is surprising to know that she was working in the battlefield in addition to her regular lectures in the university. 
I regard the place where Marie Curie  was born as one of the holy places for those who love science and want to devote their life in the service of humankind.

Maoist War in Nepal and Curricula Debate

 – Khagendra Acharya

I intend in this article to initiate a debate on curriculum change in Nepali context. I basically argue that revision of curricula needs to incorporate dynamics of traumatic experience during ten years of armed conflict.  I use the notion of traumatic experience in Sigmund Freud’s sense, i.e., the experience any individual goes through after any terrible happening. This is to say when any such event occurs, the person does not understand it, but after certain time starts suffering from symptoms like hysteria, nightmares and so on. 
Curriculum of any country as a guide for syllabus design, education experts argue, should comply with the changing environment of not only the country but also of the world. Viewed from this insight, curriculum demands timely revision both for incorporating development in the world and for addressing realities in the country/locality. To meet this need, universities of the world form autonomous bodies of experts to recommend the nature of upgrading. Moreover, they provide freedom to course instructors for changing the syllabus. Together, the mechanisms function for implementation of new courses or termination of outdated programs.
In Nepalese context, however, the curriculum and consequently the syllabus of school to university level show an alarming picture. Bitter but true, we have witnessed the same curriculum operating for more than a decade. Implicitly, this condition demands two-fold interpretation: first, Nepal has not undergone any changes and the development in the world has not affected the country in these years; and second, experts on curriculum in Nepal have either not felt the need to change or not been able to persuade education bureaucracy. Whatever the reality, condemning any side would not do justice to the need of time to revise the curriculum and implement it accordingly.
The revision process, I would emphasize, needs to take findings to the question – what type of traumatic experience have the people undergone in the making of people’s  republic out of the metamorphosis of Hindu kingdom – seriously. Certainly, the political transformation would find its space in the syllabus of social sciences, but what about the experiences different groups such as Maoist guerilla, security forces, and many civilians underwent during the process? Two apparent options become visible to curriculum designers in this regard: one, being amnesiac to their experience with an intention of making the people forget everything; and two, valorizing their deeds with the goal of producing individuals having ‘similar courage’.
Before discussing the consequences of both options, I think it worthy to look back at available statistics within the span of March 1995 to November 2005, i.e., the duration of Maoist insurgency and State-counter-insurgency. A point to note here is, the available statistics of war reveals only the manifested cases: 16,278 killed, 1500 disappeared, 75,000 injured and 250,000 internally displaced. The reality beyond this statics is even more horrible. The number of persons tortured, raped, abducted and otherwise physically brutalized remains measureless. Categorizing the victims, we find mainly three types. The first type comprises the people traumatized mainly by the security forces; at individual level, the category consists of people targeted for their support for the Maoists. The second category comprises people who were hardly involved in any of the sides but faced it as they happened to be in the particular situation. Similarly, the third group includes police or alleged informers of police or the cadres of other political parties tortured by the Maoists.
The option – amnesia – for curriculum designers is inappropriate, for it overlooks human dynamics of any war. As such, the future generation hardly succeeds to understand the bitter part of the war as they would read numbers only and thus fail to grasp the real experience. Moreover, the descendants of victims, who need to disown their revenge motive, cannot enter the psychological process of gradually forgetting their intention. Probably, if the syllabus designers of Nepali history had not been amnesiac to the traumatic experience of people in Kirtipur during Prithvi Narayan Shah’s attack, the people would not have sustained anti-Shah sentiment. Though arguments can be forwarded against this example, the notion of ‘working through’ from psychoanalysis does not refute it.
The other option –valorization – also does not sound appropriate mainly because it exaggerates some experience at the cost of the extinction of multiple voices. In other words, if we confine the selection to unitary narrative of the victory of good versus loss of bad force, we will be providing no space for the dynamic nature of war experience. Consequently, war for the future generation would appear a romantic affair.
Hence, to avoid the curriculum from being traditional in its architecture or from maintaining aloofness of the historical reality, we need to initiate a debate which in turn would be productive. Hopefully, the invitation for debate would result in making traumatic experience, which is often bracketed from our notion of what constitutes curriculum, part and parcel of classroom life. 
(First published in Gurukul – Educational Monthly, October-November 2011)

What Rhetoric Means to Me

– Hem Raj Kafle
My academic standing as an M. Phil. in English and a teacher of English language, literature, technical communication and media studies in Kathmandu University has largely shaped my inquiries into different domains of rhetorical scholarship. My entry in this field began with a limited understanding of rhetoric as an embellished discourse where literary tropes played major role in eliciting certain emotional responses from a reader/auditor. Poetry featured most in this understanding, with fictions and persuasive essays to complement at times.
When I studied the classical system of rhetoric, with Aristotle, Cicero and Quintilian as focal resources, my perception broadened from rheotric’s aesthetic dimension to more practical contextual dimensions for its being a system of organized, persuasive discourse. The practical sides, basically the three genres (forensic, deliberative and epideictic), three modes of proof (ethos, logos, pathos) and the five canons (invention, arrangement, style, memory and delivery) guided my teaching of English and media studies and helped shape my own researches, presentations and writings.  
My work has not been unidirectional, as is common in a qualitative inquiry. If I had chosen to be registered full time, with rhetoric at hand, and was not teaching at the university, I would be more focused to the task of clearing methodological and analytical arrays now. But I might have been in disadvantage in two respects. I would not adapt to the pedagogical value of the classical system of rhetoric through practical applications in everyday professional activities. Nor would I consciously improve my sense of discourse embellishment through the awareness of embellished arrangement and style. Allowing myself open channels of learning and practice, I have helped myself to experience my subject in its multiplicity. 
I am trailing through two rich territories of rhetorical scholarship. The first is Rhetorical Studies, which helps scrutinize the social, historical, political dimensions of the April Movement and its representations in the editorials. The second, scholarship in English studies with Rhetoric and Composition as a disciplinary category, teaches me the nuances of discourse structures, figures of speech and overall aesthetics of editorial writing. Unlike a general trend in rhetorical scholarship in the west where a researcher/candidate is formally confined to only one of these disciplinary terrains, and where the two hardly combine or “cross-pollinate”, I have enjoyed the freedom to draw knowledge from both. This may ultimately lead me to a third territory, that of Rhetoric in its fundamental classical sense, where the study directs me to recognizing a particular system of rhetoric characteristic to a non-western, Nepalese context. To be more specific, this is where the inferences might help explore a pattern of Nepalese media rhetoric reflective of a social movement. 
Fantasy Theme Analysis (FTA), a method of rhetorical criticism underpinned in Ernest Bormann’s Symbolic Convergence Theory, which I aim to apply in the study of about 400 editorials, blends the aforesaid lines of scholarship. It merges aesthetics (for its emphasis on performative/dramatic qualities of discourse) and politics (role of time, space and actors). Symbolic Convergence Theory which takes that any communication helps construct a rhetorical vision, a symbolic reality which underlies the convergence of a cumulative number of people who identify with the reality and participate in transferring it further.  Fantasy theme analysis systematically examines how rhetorical visions are constructed from communicative artifacts. It takes communication as a form of drama with characters, actions and settings where realities are dramatized in the form of fantasy themes (shared narratives). FTC accepts the notion that shared narratives accumulate as fantasy types which constitute rhetorical vision, the symbolic reality with which the participants of communication identify. 
I have internalized rhetoric in three dimensions. Whether it really can be of practical, pedagogical value is my first concern. And it does have. The classical system of rhetoric, which involves three genres, three modes of proof and five canons, is useful in the practice and teaching of oral presentation and written composition. I have conceptualized two classroom approaches/activities with the help of the five canons.  The first is what I have introduced as “The Eight R’s of Presentation” involving the steps of preparing an effective oral presentation. The second concerns a blog entitled Rhetorical Ventures intended to facilitate and archive student compositions. I presented this blog in two International conferences of English teachers in January and February 2010.
Besides, I have included fundamentals of rhetoric and rhetorical criticism in the syllabus of Text and Audience, which is taught in the third year of Bachelor in Media Studies, Kathmandu University. This helps complement a small section of the syllabus of Public Relations for the second year, which contains rhetorical strategies as communication strategies for public relation campaigners.
Subsequently, as a second dimension, rhetoric functions as an important tool for the creation and critique of everyday communication. I am conscious of using effective means in all forms of communication, be it meant for persuasion, information, invitation, identification or settlement of conflicts. I have been more conscious seeing the same means critically in the communications of other people. One achievement in this direction is the development of the habit of what Wayne Booth calls “listening rhetoric”. This helps me make clear sense of any communicators’ intentions, weigh the extent of truth and lie in their words, and trace a ground for devising appropriate forms of response. Rhetorical awareness saves me from potential relationship crises because it helps me decide when to force an argument and where to withdraw it in the lack of adequate modes of proof. 
The third and the most crucial dimension of my present study on rhetoric involves critical scholarship. First, it drives me more towards my research through the painful and pleasant moments of losses and finds — my journey of oscillation across disciplines and approaches, and of the moments of serious discourses with the supervisors and potential readers. While the actual analytical journey stills remains in a bulk, I have been trying to feel the adventure through shorter writings, presentations, editing, reviewing, and supervising student projects.
Overall, with two years’ intense involvement in rhetorical scholarship, I have learned that in research the process counts as important as the product.  The process helps me grow along with the concept, and gradually ensures the reflection of this growth in everyday professional adventures.  I am equally conscious that the product has the potential for adding some dimensions to the field of scholarship where I have so far trailed and toiled. The work is ongoing. I feel the growth every time I encounter a new rhetorical challenge.

सम्पादकीय

भौतिक विज्ञानले दृष्‍टिकोणलाई गौण मानी दृष्यमा विश्‍वास गर्नुपर्छ भन्ला, प्रवृत्तिलाईभन्दा पात्रलाई मुख्य ठान्ला। तर ज्ञानको सिर्जना र सम्प्रेषण गर्ने थलोमा दृष्‍टिकोण र प्रवृत्ति दुवैको अहम् मूल्य हुन्छ। दृष्य र पात्रहरू महत्वपूर्ण साधनहरू हुन्। तर ती स्वाभावत: नाशिने वा विश्थापित हुने हुनाले समाज बिकासका प्रमुख मार्गदर्शक बन्दैनन्। ज्ञान, दृष्टिकोण र प्रवृत्ति समयानुसार संसोधित हुँदै लगातार प्रसारित हुने हुँदा मानवको प्रत्येक नयाँ पुस्ताले यीबाट निर्देशित हुन पाउँछ। 
असल मानिसहरू चुपचाप ओझेलमा सिर्जनाका कामहरू गरिरहेको बेला खराब पात्रहरूको मात्र चर्चा समाजले  गरेको पाइन्छ ।  खराबीको चर्चामा समय फालेको समूहले सिर्जनालाई ढिलो देख्‍छ, र प्रत्यक्ष भौतिक फाइदा वा हानीको महसुस नहुन्जेलसम्म त्यसको महत्व पनि बुझ्दैन। आम मानिसको दैनिकी महामानवहरूको संगतमा चलेको हुँदैन, न त हरेक मानिसमा शिखरमा पुग्ने महत्वाकाङ्‍क्षा नै हुन्छ। समाजलाई थेग्ने पात्रहरू सामान्य जीवन बाँच्छन्। असल मानिसहरूले आफ्नो विवेकले ठिक देखेको काम निरन्तर गरिरहने हुनाले समाज बस्नलायक रहन्छ। रचनात्मक काम केही नगर्ने, गर्न नसक्ने वा गर्नै नचाहनेहरूको पनि कमी छैन। चाहने र सक्नेले नचाहने र नसक्नेलाई पनि हतेर्दै लिएर हिँड्नु पर्ने वाध्यता प्रगतिको वाधक भएता पनि समाजले यसलाई आत्मसात गरेको हुन्छ।
 
हामीले सकारात्मक दृष्‍टिकोणले समाजमा राम्रा मान्यताहरू स्थापित हुने र नकारात्मक प्रवृत्तिले स्थापित मान्यताहरूको विनाश गर्ने कुरामा सचेत भई आफ्नो सिर्जनशील बाटो तय गरेका छौँ। हामी ठान्छौँ, सचेत मानिसहरूको ठूलो जमात यो देशमा कहीँ न कहीँ अल्मलिएको छ, रचनात्मक दायीत्वबाट जानी जानी विमुख भएको छ। लाग्छ, जिम्मेवारीले चुनौती दिन, र विवेकले घचघच्याउन छाडिसक्यो। कामना गरौँ रछ्यान मिल्काउँदैमा समय खेर नजाओस्। अनुत्पादक भिड बढ्दै जाँदा हुने असुरक्षाप्रति हामी सबै सजग रहनुपर्छ।
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